Naked; stripped.
My native cloth stolen , but not forgotten?
You gave me new ones, but the fit made me chafe; I refuse to wear them .
Even my body, spread wide, is now yours it seems-only my heart remains secret.
I'm glad yoour dead.
Blood drips from my fingertips onto your careful maps.
Its time
Tuesday 21 April 2009
Saturday 18 April 2009
My own Native Tribe-Musapur, Punjab.
I am now embarking on a journey, at attempting to establish my own roots and heritage. I am aware my father is originally from Musapur, Punjab an area which resides in Jalundhar. My mother is also originally from the Punjab, India. My fathers surname is Khosa and my mother is Dhaliwal, but what does this all mean? and where does it lead me back to?
Musapur is an agricultural village (pind) in the Nawanshahr district (Now known as 'Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar District') of Punjab in India.
Baba Sundar Das an influential parcharak (preacher) of Sikhism from Guru Nanak Dev Ji's time hailed from this village. A gurdwara stands at the site of his historic samaadh today. This Gurdwara has recently undergone a complete refurbishment and the opening ceremony was held in February 2008. Famous punjabi song writer Amarjit Musapuria also belongs to this village.
The main surname of the residents in this village is Kandola. There are also a number of people with the surnames Atwal, Poonia, Bhambra, Chopra and Verma residing here. The surname Seyan is also believed to originate from this village.
There doesn’t seem to be any regard to ‘Khosa’ within our village?
Musapur is close to both cities of Banga and Nawanshahr, and is near to the villages of Mungowal, Khama, Kariha and Bhangalan.
I am aware my village Musapur is in Nawanshahr, which resides in Julandhar, but what about Punjab?
"One of the earliest stone age cultures of South Asia nourished in the Punjab. People generally accept that about eight centuries before Christ, the Punjab was the most enlightened and the prosperous region in the world. The Harappa civilization developed in Punjab and its culture spread to Iran, Afghanistan, Balochistan, and north-western parts of South Asia.The Vedic and Epic period of the Punjab was socially and culturally very prolific as during this glorious period, the people accelerated in the fields of philosophy and culture. Here the people composed the Rig Veda and the Upanishads. Further, tradition maintains that Valmiki composed the Ramayana near the present Amritsar city and Kaikyee belonged to this region. Lord Krishna gave the divine message of the Gita at Kurukshetra. It was here that people wrote eighteen principal Puranas. The authors of Vishnu Purana and the Shiv Purano belonged to the central Punjab."(Punjab.online: No date)
"Scholars of the history of India generally agree that it is one of the oldest civilizations in the world and that its cradle was the soil of Punjab. Its cities were known as Mohenjodaro and Harappa and scholars sometimes refer to it as the Indus Valley civilization. It dates back to between 7000-20,000 BC." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Punjab- Derivation of Name.
"The most significant factor concerning the development of the Indus Valley civilization was undoubtedly its fertile soil and five rivers(Jehlum, Chenab, Tavi, Sutlej and Beas) that provided a constant supply of water for irrigation. Interestingly, the term punjab Punjab comprised of two words: 'Punj' meaning five and 'ab' meaning water, thus the land of five rivers." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Punjab, is a region covering both parts of Eastern Pakistan and Northern India, with each of these five rivers surrounding it. People of Punjab are known Punjabi’s. Punjabi people speak Punjabi.
Religions In Punjab.
The three main religions within India are Sikhism, Hinduism and Islam.
Origins.
"The people of India have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological changes." (History of India: 2004)
"During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures." (History of India: 2004)
"The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights." (History Of India: 2004)
"Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other." (History of India: 2004)
"Around the time of the 15th Century, Guru Nanak Dev founded the Sikh religion, which quickly came to prominence in the region." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
"Appearance of Guru Nanak (1469-1538) was an event significant not only for the region but for the whole country. He was the founder of a powerful popular movement which has left a lasting impression on the history and culture of all of South Asia. Born in the district of Sheikhupura, he rejected the division of mankind into rigid compartments of orthodox religions and preached the oneness of humanity, and oneness of God, thus aiming at creating a new order which embraced the all pervasive spirit in man. He condemned and ridiculed the false and unnatural notions of high and low in society, He denounced idolatory and laid stress on meditation for the realization of the Universal self. British intrution had political, cultural, philosophical and literary consequences in the Punjab."(Punjab. online: No date)
In the 1600’s Britain attempted at trading with India. King James I sent a envoy to the Mogul Emperor Jahinger in 1614.
Due to the emperor being incredibly wealthy he did not see to how the British could benefit him in any way.
The Mogul empire had been present since 1500’s when Babur form Afghanistan invaded India. The Moguls during their reign had conquered much of Northern India and were hugely powerful.
Shah Jahan ruled form 1628-1658, he was to a Mogul ruler.
India was now a mass empire and had much equity in treasure. Islam became the official religion and it was Shah Jahan who built the Taj Mahal, as a symbol of his wife’s death.
Location: On the banks of river Yamuna in Agra
Year of Construction: 1631-1653
Built By: Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Spread Over: 42 acres
Significance: One of the Seven Wonders of the World
"The region has been invaded and ruled by many different empires and races, including the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Muslims, and Mongols." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
The Fall of the Mogul Empire.
The Mogul Empire was in a state of collapse by the 1720s. Other European powers were competing for control in India, and sought alliances with the shaky states that inherited the Mogul territories.
The East India Company established its own army in India, which was composed of British troops as well as native soldiers called sepoys.
The British interests in India, under the leadership of Robert Clive, gained military victories from the 1740s onward, and with the Battle of Plassey in 1757 were able to establish dominance.
"The East India Company gradually strengthened its hold, even instituting a court system. British citizens began building an "Anglo-Indian" society within India, and English customs were adapted to the climate of India." McNamara, R (2009)
British Rule-’The Raj’
The Bristish rule became known as ‘the Raj’ when means King.
British merchants could make a fortune in India and would then return home, often to be derided by those in British high society as "nabobs," the title for an official under the Moguls.
The Raj: bangle, dungaree, khaki, pundit, seersucker, jodhpurs, cushy, pyjamas, and many more.
Tales of life in India fascinated the British public, and exotic Indian scenes, such as a drawing of an elephant fight, appeared in books published in London in the 1820s.
"The term Raj was used much before the British rule, however did not establish meaning till after 1858"
McNamara, R (2009)
"The 19th Century saw the beginning of British rule, which led to the emergence of several heroic Punjabi freedom fighters. Finally, the Punjab was split between Pakistan and India at the end of British rule in 1947. "(Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Freedom fighters were greatly visible during this period. They fought for India to be an independent state and a fair and just country.
"Punjab played a role worthy of its name. Many heroes emerged from the Punjab such as Lajpat Rai,Ajit Singh, Bhagat Singh, Uddham Singh, Bhal Parmanand and a host of others. Since independence, life in the Punjab proves to be tragic and traumatic." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
"The partition resulted in riots and terror which tore up millions of homes and destroyed many lives. The massive exodus resulting from the newly formed state of Pakistan created problems of uncontrollable dimensions. The Punjabis trekked in blood and shreds. However, the Punjabi spirit often acuity and toughness sustained the uprooted people. The disillusioned people set to work with no self pity to plough fresh fields. They built new industries and became prominent in sports. Punjabis attained an eminent place in cultural, aesthetic, and literary work, and revived folk art, song, dance and drama. All of this has created a sense of pride and climate of involvement in the heritage of the Punjab." (Oxford Sikhs: No date).
"In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and non violent resistance and non-cooperation to achieve independence." (History of India: 2004)
The British controlled most of India and Bangladesh. However in 1857 India rebelled and with Indian Soldiers which forced the British to give back India’s land.
"Great Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers." (History of India: 2004)
The 15th of August is celebrated with patriotism and pride. For this is the day India was declared the freedom and made independent.
At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance... We end today a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.
"On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. "(History of India: 2004)
This led to a divide between the Indians and Pakistani’s which saw a great deal of bloodshed.
Some refer to this war a the first ‘Kashmiri war’
Kashmir War.
"After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s." (History of India: 2004)
"Prime Minister Nehru governed India until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties."(History of India: 2004)
Indira Ghandi was hated amongst the Indian people, due to her leadership policies and bigotry towards other religious spokes persons. Even now Indira is one of the most hated Prime Minister of India’s time. Sant Sigh Bindra Singh, a Sikh, was an active spokesperson during Indira’s reign. In spreading the religious word and values to others many were converting to Sikhism. People were even joining the ’Khalsa’ but taking part in the sacred ’Amrit’ ceremony, where you are baptized a Sikhs. Indira did not like this as she was a Hindu herself, therefore on wanting to arrest Sant Bhindra Singh, she went to the Golden Temple. It is commonly known by many that if she had wished to get Sant Bindra Singh on terms of arrest she could have stopped the Temple form serving food, however instead her vengence on Sikhism led her to do the one most shocking acts known today. Indira instead instructed her army to attack the Golden Temple.
In the history of Indian time any human which has attacked the Golden Temple, which to date is four , have always eventually died.
My father remembers the day Indira attacked the Golden Temple he was living in Germany. It bears a grudge within his heart even to this day. You can feel the fire in his heart as he speaks.
Indira Ghandhi got rid of all her Sikh bodyguards as she was now to frightened to keep them with her. However she kept two Sikh men which she trusted dearly . They said they were her best bodyguards and extremely loyal and she did not feel threatened by them.
However, October 31st 1984, was assassinated by these two very bodyguards.
In a circle around her each body guard stood. The two seek men were to the front and back of her, in a joint pre-planned decision they began shooting her. All other bodyguards therefore shot them, however a life is little to pay for your country and religion.
"In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar." (History of India: 2004)
In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.
On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.
The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.
In November 1997, the Congress Party in India again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.
"In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999."
(History of India 2004)
Since the beginning of Alexander in 326BC, Punjab has been subjected to violence on a number of occasions . Many Kings have been present throughout history at attempting to protect the Punjabi nation.
It is fair to say, India have extraordinary strength and will to fight even at the weakest of times. In the British conquering India , the Punjabi people did not play the victim, but instead stood up against injustice to claim back their land.
It should be known that a substantial majority of freedom fighters and soldiers who went to war were Punjabi’s.
After the divide in 1947 of India and Pakistan it is sad to say the hostility is still evident to this day. The blood shed and stains of rape, violence and torture, which cost both the Indian and Pakistani people where 1.5 million were killed. War over Kashmir has been claimed on three occasions each resulting in only more deaths. Finally Kashmir was presented as an Independent state.
‘Khosa’
Khosa Jats
Musapur union ranks highest in this category of land use indicating that this union is the
most populous union of the rural areas. A total of 1182.70 acres of land, which is 16.08 percent of
total land falls under Homestead category. Other places with higher acreage under this category are
Kalagachia Union (856.30 acres), Bandar Union (802.32 acres), Kadam Rasul Paurashava (797.17
acres), Mograpara Union (788.14 acres) and Dhamgar Union (654.97 acres)
(Chapter II, Critical Planning Issues: No date)
It is now obvious as to why my family resides in Jaludhar, due to the rural areas, this is due to it benefiting our occupation.
‘Jat’ my caste is an occupation meaning Farmer. It is my birth title which can not be changed All my ancestors from both my mother and fathers side are farmers.
The Jat first emerged politically in the 17th century and afterward, having military kingdoms such as Mursan in Uttar Pradesh, Bharatpur in Rajasthan, and Patiala in Punjab. Their sense of group solidarity, pride, and self-sufficiency have been historically significant in many ways. During the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (late 17th century), for example, Jat leaders captained uprisings in the region of Mathura. A Jat kingdom established at nearby Bharatpur in the 18th century became a principal rival for declining Mughal power, its rulers apparently seeing themselves as defenders of Hindu ways against the Muslim Mughals.
Jats are the highest caste within the hierarchy of India, as we are landowners.
Origins of Khosa
Khosa Jats hold Khosa in Sonjanwala , Katla Suraj Mall in Tehsil Nakodar, and part of Gopalpur or Bidhipur in Tehsil and Jalundar.
Khosa interstingly does originate from Jalundar , and the suname is known as a Jat surname.
Origins of Dhaliwal-My mothers maiden name.
So we know the origins of India, my village and name but where do the Jat peope descend from?
Wars
First Indo-Pakistan War (1948-1949)--Also known as the First Kashmir War.
Liberation of Hyderabad (1948)--Also known in India as "Operation Polo."
Naga Rebellion (1954?-Present)
Liberation of Goa (1961)--A conflict between India and Portugal. Goa had been a Portuguese colony for centuries prior to the Indian invasion of 1961. Also known in India as "Operation Vijay."
Sino-Indian War (1962)--Border war between China and India.
United Nations Offensive Operations in the Congo (1961-1964)--India contributed troops to the UN army which undertook offensive action against rebels in the Congo.
Second Indo-Pakistan War (1965)--Also known as the Second Kashmir War.
Sino-Indian Skirmish (1967)--Also known as the Chola "Incident."
Third Indo-Pakistan War/Bengali War of Independence (1971)--India attacked Pakistan in support of rebels seeking the independence of Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan) from Pakistan.
Assam-Nagaland border dispute (1979?-Present?)
Punjab Insurgency (1984-1989)--A rebellion in the Sikh-dominated Punjab region culminated in the bloody Battle at the Golden Temple in June of 1984. Follow-up operations in the countryside continued into 1989. India claims the Sikh rebels were backed by Pakistan.
Siachen Operations (1984-Present)--The Siachen Glacier is one of the highest glaciers in the world, and it sits astride the demarcation line between India's and Pakistan's claims in Jammu and Kashmir. Since the mid-'80's, artillery and infantry battles have broken out along this stretch of the border. These battles are related to the ongoing Kashmir Revolt (see below).
Indian Intervention in Sri Lankan Civil War (1987-1990)--India intervened in the bloody Sri Lankan Civil War (which continues into 2000) in support of the Sinhalese majority-dominated government. After suffering heavy casualties and realizing that this was a conflict best left to the Sri Lankans, India removed her troops in 1990.
Indian Intervention in the Maldives (1988)--India intervened to save the government of the Maldives Islands from a takeover by Sri Lankan rebels.
Kashmir Revolt (1990-Present)-This is the internal Indian conflict involving Pakistan and Pakistani-supported Kashmir rebels.
Indian-Bangladesh Border Conflict (2001)--
References.
1. Oxford Sikhs (No date) Oxford Sikhs: Mera Punjab, Punjabi Heritage [online] available from: http://www.oxfordsikhs.com/MeraPunjab/PunjabiHeritage/default.aspx [accessed 17.03.2009]
2. Indian Child (2002-2004) Indian Child: History of India [online] available from: http://www.indianchild.com/history_of_india.htm [accessed 26.03.2009]
3. McNamara, R (2009) A Timeline of India in the 1800's [online] About.com, The New York Times available from: http://history1800s.about.com/od/thebritishempire/tp/indiatimeline01.htm [accessed 26.03.2009)
4. Nijjar B.S (2008) Origins and History of Jats and Other Allied Nomadic Tribes of India Atlantic.
5. Punjab. online (No date) Punjab. Online: Introduction - Introduction to Punjab
[online] available from: http://www.punjabonline.com/servlet/library.library?Action=Intro [accessed 15.04.2009]
6. Chapter II (No date) Chapter II: Critical Planning Issues [online] available from: http://209.85.129.132/search?q=cache:D1dKthB9bNkJ:www.rajukdhaka.gov.bd/dap/Rajuk_Report/group_b/CHAPTER_II.pdf+musapur+origins&cd=5&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk&client=firefox-a [accessed 17.04.2009]
Musapur is an agricultural village (pind) in the Nawanshahr district (Now known as 'Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar District') of Punjab in India.
Baba Sundar Das an influential parcharak (preacher) of Sikhism from Guru Nanak Dev Ji's time hailed from this village. A gurdwara stands at the site of his historic samaadh today. This Gurdwara has recently undergone a complete refurbishment and the opening ceremony was held in February 2008. Famous punjabi song writer Amarjit Musapuria also belongs to this village.
The main surname of the residents in this village is Kandola. There are also a number of people with the surnames Atwal, Poonia, Bhambra, Chopra and Verma residing here. The surname Seyan is also believed to originate from this village.
There doesn’t seem to be any regard to ‘Khosa’ within our village?
Musapur is close to both cities of Banga and Nawanshahr, and is near to the villages of Mungowal, Khama, Kariha and Bhangalan.
I am aware my village Musapur is in Nawanshahr, which resides in Julandhar, but what about Punjab?
"One of the earliest stone age cultures of South Asia nourished in the Punjab. People generally accept that about eight centuries before Christ, the Punjab was the most enlightened and the prosperous region in the world. The Harappa civilization developed in Punjab and its culture spread to Iran, Afghanistan, Balochistan, and north-western parts of South Asia.The Vedic and Epic period of the Punjab was socially and culturally very prolific as during this glorious period, the people accelerated in the fields of philosophy and culture. Here the people composed the Rig Veda and the Upanishads. Further, tradition maintains that Valmiki composed the Ramayana near the present Amritsar city and Kaikyee belonged to this region. Lord Krishna gave the divine message of the Gita at Kurukshetra. It was here that people wrote eighteen principal Puranas. The authors of Vishnu Purana and the Shiv Purano belonged to the central Punjab."(Punjab.online: No date)
"Scholars of the history of India generally agree that it is one of the oldest civilizations in the world and that its cradle was the soil of Punjab. Its cities were known as Mohenjodaro and Harappa and scholars sometimes refer to it as the Indus Valley civilization. It dates back to between 7000-20,000 BC." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Punjab- Derivation of Name.
"The most significant factor concerning the development of the Indus Valley civilization was undoubtedly its fertile soil and five rivers(Jehlum, Chenab, Tavi, Sutlej and Beas) that provided a constant supply of water for irrigation. Interestingly, the term punjab Punjab comprised of two words: 'Punj' meaning five and 'ab' meaning water, thus the land of five rivers." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Punjab, is a region covering both parts of Eastern Pakistan and Northern India, with each of these five rivers surrounding it. People of Punjab are known Punjabi’s. Punjabi people speak Punjabi.
Religions In Punjab.
The three main religions within India are Sikhism, Hinduism and Islam.
Origins.
"The people of India have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological changes." (History of India: 2004)
"During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures." (History of India: 2004)
"The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights." (History Of India: 2004)
"Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other." (History of India: 2004)
"Around the time of the 15th Century, Guru Nanak Dev founded the Sikh religion, which quickly came to prominence in the region." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
"Appearance of Guru Nanak (1469-1538) was an event significant not only for the region but for the whole country. He was the founder of a powerful popular movement which has left a lasting impression on the history and culture of all of South Asia. Born in the district of Sheikhupura, he rejected the division of mankind into rigid compartments of orthodox religions and preached the oneness of humanity, and oneness of God, thus aiming at creating a new order which embraced the all pervasive spirit in man. He condemned and ridiculed the false and unnatural notions of high and low in society, He denounced idolatory and laid stress on meditation for the realization of the Universal self. British intrution had political, cultural, philosophical and literary consequences in the Punjab."(Punjab. online: No date)
In the 1600’s Britain attempted at trading with India. King James I sent a envoy to the Mogul Emperor Jahinger in 1614.
Due to the emperor being incredibly wealthy he did not see to how the British could benefit him in any way.
The Mogul empire had been present since 1500’s when Babur form Afghanistan invaded India. The Moguls during their reign had conquered much of Northern India and were hugely powerful.
Shah Jahan ruled form 1628-1658, he was to a Mogul ruler.
India was now a mass empire and had much equity in treasure. Islam became the official religion and it was Shah Jahan who built the Taj Mahal, as a symbol of his wife’s death.
Location: On the banks of river Yamuna in Agra
Year of Construction: 1631-1653
Built By: Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
Spread Over: 42 acres
Significance: One of the Seven Wonders of the World
"The region has been invaded and ruled by many different empires and races, including the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Muslims, and Mongols." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
The Fall of the Mogul Empire.
The Mogul Empire was in a state of collapse by the 1720s. Other European powers were competing for control in India, and sought alliances with the shaky states that inherited the Mogul territories.
The East India Company established its own army in India, which was composed of British troops as well as native soldiers called sepoys.
The British interests in India, under the leadership of Robert Clive, gained military victories from the 1740s onward, and with the Battle of Plassey in 1757 were able to establish dominance.
"The East India Company gradually strengthened its hold, even instituting a court system. British citizens began building an "Anglo-Indian" society within India, and English customs were adapted to the climate of India." McNamara, R (2009)
British Rule-’The Raj’
The Bristish rule became known as ‘the Raj’ when means King.
British merchants could make a fortune in India and would then return home, often to be derided by those in British high society as "nabobs," the title for an official under the Moguls.
The Raj: bangle, dungaree, khaki, pundit, seersucker, jodhpurs, cushy, pyjamas, and many more.
Tales of life in India fascinated the British public, and exotic Indian scenes, such as a drawing of an elephant fight, appeared in books published in London in the 1820s.
"The term Raj was used much before the British rule, however did not establish meaning till after 1858"
McNamara, R (2009)
"The 19th Century saw the beginning of British rule, which led to the emergence of several heroic Punjabi freedom fighters. Finally, the Punjab was split between Pakistan and India at the end of British rule in 1947. "(Oxford Sikhs: No date)
Freedom fighters were greatly visible during this period. They fought for India to be an independent state and a fair and just country.
"Punjab played a role worthy of its name. Many heroes emerged from the Punjab such as Lajpat Rai,Ajit Singh, Bhagat Singh, Uddham Singh, Bhal Parmanand and a host of others. Since independence, life in the Punjab proves to be tragic and traumatic." (Oxford Sikhs: No date)
"The partition resulted in riots and terror which tore up millions of homes and destroyed many lives. The massive exodus resulting from the newly formed state of Pakistan created problems of uncontrollable dimensions. The Punjabis trekked in blood and shreds. However, the Punjabi spirit often acuity and toughness sustained the uprooted people. The disillusioned people set to work with no self pity to plough fresh fields. They built new industries and became prominent in sports. Punjabis attained an eminent place in cultural, aesthetic, and literary work, and revived folk art, song, dance and drama. All of this has created a sense of pride and climate of involvement in the heritage of the Punjab." (Oxford Sikhs: No date).
"In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and non violent resistance and non-cooperation to achieve independence." (History of India: 2004)
The British controlled most of India and Bangladesh. However in 1857 India rebelled and with Indian Soldiers which forced the British to give back India’s land.
"Great Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers." (History of India: 2004)
The 15th of August is celebrated with patriotism and pride. For this is the day India was declared the freedom and made independent.
At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance... We end today a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.
"On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. "(History of India: 2004)
This led to a divide between the Indians and Pakistani’s which saw a great deal of bloodshed.
Some refer to this war a the first ‘Kashmiri war’
Kashmir War.
"After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s." (History of India: 2004)
"Prime Minister Nehru governed India until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties."(History of India: 2004)
Indira Ghandi was hated amongst the Indian people, due to her leadership policies and bigotry towards other religious spokes persons. Even now Indira is one of the most hated Prime Minister of India’s time. Sant Sigh Bindra Singh, a Sikh, was an active spokesperson during Indira’s reign. In spreading the religious word and values to others many were converting to Sikhism. People were even joining the ’Khalsa’ but taking part in the sacred ’Amrit’ ceremony, where you are baptized a Sikhs. Indira did not like this as she was a Hindu herself, therefore on wanting to arrest Sant Bhindra Singh, she went to the Golden Temple. It is commonly known by many that if she had wished to get Sant Bindra Singh on terms of arrest she could have stopped the Temple form serving food, however instead her vengence on Sikhism led her to do the one most shocking acts known today. Indira instead instructed her army to attack the Golden Temple.
In the history of Indian time any human which has attacked the Golden Temple, which to date is four , have always eventually died.
My father remembers the day Indira attacked the Golden Temple he was living in Germany. It bears a grudge within his heart even to this day. You can feel the fire in his heart as he speaks.
Indira Ghandhi got rid of all her Sikh bodyguards as she was now to frightened to keep them with her. However she kept two Sikh men which she trusted dearly . They said they were her best bodyguards and extremely loyal and she did not feel threatened by them.
However, October 31st 1984, was assassinated by these two very bodyguards.
In a circle around her each body guard stood. The two seek men were to the front and back of her, in a joint pre-planned decision they began shooting her. All other bodyguards therefore shot them, however a life is little to pay for your country and religion.
"In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar." (History of India: 2004)
In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.
On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.
The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.
In November 1997, the Congress Party in India again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.
"In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999."
(History of India 2004)
Since the beginning of Alexander in 326BC, Punjab has been subjected to violence on a number of occasions . Many Kings have been present throughout history at attempting to protect the Punjabi nation.
It is fair to say, India have extraordinary strength and will to fight even at the weakest of times. In the British conquering India , the Punjabi people did not play the victim, but instead stood up against injustice to claim back their land.
It should be known that a substantial majority of freedom fighters and soldiers who went to war were Punjabi’s.
After the divide in 1947 of India and Pakistan it is sad to say the hostility is still evident to this day. The blood shed and stains of rape, violence and torture, which cost both the Indian and Pakistani people where 1.5 million were killed. War over Kashmir has been claimed on three occasions each resulting in only more deaths. Finally Kashmir was presented as an Independent state.
‘Khosa’
Khosa Jats
Musapur union ranks highest in this category of land use indicating that this union is the
most populous union of the rural areas. A total of 1182.70 acres of land, which is 16.08 percent of
total land falls under Homestead category. Other places with higher acreage under this category are
Kalagachia Union (856.30 acres), Bandar Union (802.32 acres), Kadam Rasul Paurashava (797.17
acres), Mograpara Union (788.14 acres) and Dhamgar Union (654.97 acres)
(Chapter II, Critical Planning Issues: No date)
It is now obvious as to why my family resides in Jaludhar, due to the rural areas, this is due to it benefiting our occupation.
‘Jat’ my caste is an occupation meaning Farmer. It is my birth title which can not be changed All my ancestors from both my mother and fathers side are farmers.
The Jat first emerged politically in the 17th century and afterward, having military kingdoms such as Mursan in Uttar Pradesh, Bharatpur in Rajasthan, and Patiala in Punjab. Their sense of group solidarity, pride, and self-sufficiency have been historically significant in many ways. During the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (late 17th century), for example, Jat leaders captained uprisings in the region of Mathura. A Jat kingdom established at nearby Bharatpur in the 18th century became a principal rival for declining Mughal power, its rulers apparently seeing themselves as defenders of Hindu ways against the Muslim Mughals.
Jats are the highest caste within the hierarchy of India, as we are landowners.
Origins of Khosa
Khosa Jats hold Khosa in Sonjanwala , Katla Suraj Mall in Tehsil Nakodar, and part of Gopalpur or Bidhipur in Tehsil and Jalundar.
Khosa interstingly does originate from Jalundar , and the suname is known as a Jat surname.
Origins of Dhaliwal-My mothers maiden name.
So we know the origins of India, my village and name but where do the Jat peope descend from?
Wars
First Indo-Pakistan War (1948-1949)--Also known as the First Kashmir War.
Liberation of Hyderabad (1948)--Also known in India as "Operation Polo."
Naga Rebellion (1954?-Present)
Liberation of Goa (1961)--A conflict between India and Portugal. Goa had been a Portuguese colony for centuries prior to the Indian invasion of 1961. Also known in India as "Operation Vijay."
Sino-Indian War (1962)--Border war between China and India.
United Nations Offensive Operations in the Congo (1961-1964)--India contributed troops to the UN army which undertook offensive action against rebels in the Congo.
Second Indo-Pakistan War (1965)--Also known as the Second Kashmir War.
Sino-Indian Skirmish (1967)--Also known as the Chola "Incident."
Third Indo-Pakistan War/Bengali War of Independence (1971)--India attacked Pakistan in support of rebels seeking the independence of Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan) from Pakistan.
Assam-Nagaland border dispute (1979?-Present?)
Punjab Insurgency (1984-1989)--A rebellion in the Sikh-dominated Punjab region culminated in the bloody Battle at the Golden Temple in June of 1984. Follow-up operations in the countryside continued into 1989. India claims the Sikh rebels were backed by Pakistan.
Siachen Operations (1984-Present)--The Siachen Glacier is one of the highest glaciers in the world, and it sits astride the demarcation line between India's and Pakistan's claims in Jammu and Kashmir. Since the mid-'80's, artillery and infantry battles have broken out along this stretch of the border. These battles are related to the ongoing Kashmir Revolt (see below).
Indian Intervention in Sri Lankan Civil War (1987-1990)--India intervened in the bloody Sri Lankan Civil War (which continues into 2000) in support of the Sinhalese majority-dominated government. After suffering heavy casualties and realizing that this was a conflict best left to the Sri Lankans, India removed her troops in 1990.
Indian Intervention in the Maldives (1988)--India intervened to save the government of the Maldives Islands from a takeover by Sri Lankan rebels.
Kashmir Revolt (1990-Present)-This is the internal Indian conflict involving Pakistan and Pakistani-supported Kashmir rebels.
Indian-Bangladesh Border Conflict (2001)--
References.
1. Oxford Sikhs (No date) Oxford Sikhs: Mera Punjab, Punjabi Heritage [online] available from: http://www.oxfordsikhs.com/MeraPunjab/PunjabiHeritage/default.aspx [accessed 17.03.2009]
2. Indian Child (2002-2004) Indian Child: History of India [online] available from: http://www.indianchild.com/history_of_india.htm [accessed 26.03.2009]
3. McNamara, R (2009) A Timeline of India in the 1800's [online] About.com, The New York Times available from: http://history1800s.about.com/od/thebritishempire/tp/indiatimeline01.htm [accessed 26.03.2009)
4. Nijjar B.S (2008) Origins and History of Jats and Other Allied Nomadic Tribes of India Atlantic.
5. Punjab. online (No date) Punjab. Online: Introduction - Introduction to Punjab
[online] available from: http://www.punjabonline.com/servlet/library.library?Action=Intro [accessed 15.04.2009]
6. Chapter II (No date) Chapter II: Critical Planning Issues [online] available from: http://209.85.129.132/search?q=cache:D1dKthB9bNkJ:www.rajukdhaka.gov.bd/dap/Rajuk_Report/group_b/CHAPTER_II.pdf+musapur+origins&cd=5&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk&client=firefox-a [accessed 17.04.2009]
Break the silence.
Silence, they say, is the voice of complicity.
But silence is impossible.
Silence screams.
Silence is a message,
just as doing nothing is an act.
Let who you are ring out & resonate
in every word & every deed.
Yes, become who you are.
There's no sidestepping your own being
or your own responsibility.
What you do is who you are.
You are your own comeuppance.
You become your own message.
You are the message.
But silence is impossible.
Silence screams.
Silence is a message,
just as doing nothing is an act.
Let who you are ring out & resonate
in every word & every deed.
Yes, become who you are.
There's no sidestepping your own being
or your own responsibility.
What you do is who you are.
You are your own comeuppance.
You become your own message.
You are the message.
Blood Quantum
Blood Quantum.
Mark H. Gardner, Attorney at Law
Re: blood quantum
First, in relation to determinations of tribal membership, no US standard will exist. US law leaves all jurisdiction over determinations of tribal membership to the particular recognized tribe or band in question.
Second, the degree of relationship of a party to a tribal member and the percentage of a party's tribal heritage or percentage of overall Indian heritage may be determined by any standard the particular tribe or band chooses to recognize. For example, a tribe might choose to count adopted relationship in one case and choose not to recognize adopted relationsip in another in another. No appeal to federal courts is be possible. The tribe's highest court or tribal council would simply determine, including simply determining what rules would apply -- temporarily or permanently.
Finally, the science of blood testing permits very authoritative determinations of parentage on either side, and also determination of sibling relationship. Determination of grandparent status is possible but rests on slightly less reliable statsitical results. All those blood-type and DNA tests are admitted routinely in paternity and probate cases. A tribal council therefore could not reasonably argue that the science underlying blood-type or genetic testing was unreliable.
A still more exotic and unusual form of testing rarely or never yet used in family matters, mitochondrial DNA analysis, can determine the matrilineal status of parties (mother's mother's mother's mother, etc.) running back for unbelievably long periods -- sometimes tens of thousands of years. Where an Indian father was proven and some quantum of Indian blood on the mother's side was suspected, the mitochondrial DNA test could bring the forefront of genetic testing into use in domestic relations for possibly the first time.
Many Native People have gotten so used to the idea of "blood quantum" (degree of "blood") that sometimes the origin of this racist concept is forgotten. It's use started in 1705 when the colony of Virginia adopted a series of laws which denied civil rights to any "negro, mulatto, or Indian" and which defined the above terms by stating that "the child of an Indian, and the child, grandchild, or great grandchild of a negro shall be deemed accounted, held, and taken to be a mulatto." Thus both a person of American race and a person of half-American race (a "half-blood" in other words) were treated as legally inferior persons. (Forbes, J.D. 2000).
Many Native People have gotten so used to the idea of "blood quantum" (degree of "blood") that sometimes the origin of this racist concept is forgotten. It's use started in 1705 when the colony of Virginia adopted a series of laws which denied civil rights to any "negro, mulatto, or Indian" and which defined the above terms by stating that "the child of an Indian, and the child, grandchild, or great grandchild of a negro shall be deemed accounted, held, and taken to be a mulatto." Thus both a person of American race and a person of half-American race (a "half-blood" in other words) were treated as legally inferior persons.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Colony after colony and state after state followed Virginia's example in using blood quantum as a way of determining who could have the privileges accorded to white persons. For example, Alabama's code stated that "all negroes, mulattoes, Indians and all persons of mixed blood, to the third generation inclusive, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person, whether bond or free; shall be taken, and deemed incapable in law, to be witnesses.... except for or against each other." North Carolina possessed a code which prohibited marriages between white persons and "an Indian, Negro , Mustee, or Mulatto.... or any person of Mixed Blood to the Third Generation." Such laws meant that a part-Indian of one-eighth American ancestry and seven-eighth European ancestry would not have acquired sufficient European "blood" to be accorded the legal privileges of whiteness.
The racist use of blood quantum continued without a break. In 1866 Virginia decreed that "Every person having one-fourth or more Negro blood shall be deemed a colored person, and every person not a colored person having one-fourth or more Indian blood shall be deemed an Indian." (This is perhaps where the one-quarter blood concept used by the Bureau of Indian Affairs originated). In the 20th century Virginia broadened the term "colored" to include all Indians with any trace of African ancestry, if living off-reservation, and with more than 1/32 African ancestry, if living on either the Pamunkey or Mattaponi reservations.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
The Federal government began to also use "degree of blood" in the latter part of the nineteenth-century, especially in relation to the enrollment of persons before the Dawes allotment commission. The use of "full," "one-half" etc. at that time was both an extension of the previous racist system and also a step in terminating Native Americans. Persons with greater amounts of white ancestry were assumed to be more competent than persons with lesser amounts. In other words, the degree of white blood was much more important than the degree of American ancestry. The white blood entitled an Indian citizen to greater privileges, including being able to have "wardship" restrictions removed, being able to sell property, acquire the right to vote in state and federal elections, and so on. Thus it may be that many persons chose to exaggerate their amount of white ancestry when enrolling. Persons without white ancestry were restricted persons, with the Bureau controlling their financial lives. It was also expected that when a person became "competent" ( white enough) he would no longer be an Indian and that process would eventually terminate a tribe's existence.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Thus the recording of blood quantum is both a product of white racism and of white social science theories of a racist nature, and also a product of a plan wherein Native nations are expected to vanish when the white blood quantum reaches a certain level (above three-fourths, for example). For this latter reason alone, the use of blood quantum is exceedingly dangerous for Native Nations today, although the Bureau and some eastern Oklahoma Indians don't seem to care about this danger.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
First, Indian ancestry is to be computed only from so-called Federally-recognized tribes ( in spite of the ambiguous status of some tribes at this time). The changes specifically limit "Indian blood" to ancestry from a Federally-recognized tribe and define the latter as one listed in the Federal Register as a tribe recognized by the Secretary of the Interior. This means that one's degree of Indian blood cannot include American Indian or Eskimo-Inuit ancestry derived from a terminated tribe, from an administratively-deleted tribe, from a Canadian, Greenlandic, Mexican or other non-US group, or from any state-recognized tribe (as along the east coast), or perhaps from any newly-recognized tribe. Thus a person who is 1/2 Inuit from Alaska and 1/2 Inuit from Canada or Greenland can only be counted as 1/2. (Jack D. Forbes)
The possibility exists that numerous persons of full American indigenous racial ancestry will be counted as mixed-bloods and that, gradually, American Indians will be eliminated as a people as they marry non-Indians or currently non-Federally recognized Natives. This is a form of self-termination. (Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Well, the way the government defines whether someone is a "real" Indian or not is they measure their blood. They have some arcane way of doing this by dividing the number of generations since all your ancestors were pure-blood by the number of marriages with people who aren't pure-blood. By their counting, I think I'm 7/8 Indian. Some of it is Muskogee, but they don't care about that. They're just trying to see how close we are or are not to white. (Orrin:2008)
One, it puts pressure on Indians not to marry white people or their children will lose their heritage, and that bothers a lot of people. Two, it means that if some of your ancestors aren't in the records, you can be denied being an Indian. Three, it's wrong for outsiders to tell you if you can or can't belong to an ethnic group. Nobody makes African-Americans prove their entire family line and apply for some governmental Certificate of Degree of African Blood before they can get a scholarship from the NAACP or put "Black-owned" on their business if they want to. And four, most disturbingly: it guarantees the extinction of the American Indian. By this standard, white is the default, and everyone is approaching whiteness. Someone who is 1/8 Indian is considered white, and that is the end of their Indianness-- they are white and their children will be white, forever.(Orrin:2008)
More than 560 tribes are recognized by the federal government. More are fighting for recognition. With recognition come certain benefits such as health care, but more importantly, there comes a sense of pride, a sense of belonging. (Walker, D. 2009).
Rarely is blood quantum ever brought up unless it has to do with enrollment. Most non-Natives don’t understand the process of how someone is enrolled or federally recognized by their blood quantum. It’s confusing, some have told me. I agree. We are the only U.S. citizens who have to report our Native blood quantum..(Walker, D. 2009).
How can someone be a quarter Native? In other words, is one of their legs considered their only Native part? It’s laughable, yet very serious and, to most Natives, it’s an everyday struggle. .(Walker, D. 2009).
It’s kind of scary knowing tribes can oust other Natives at any time. Does that mean they are no longer Native? But it goes back to the age-old question: Who is Native?
"Well they don’t look Native." Yeah, we all heard that one before. What are we supposed to look like? Chief Yahoo? Are we supposed to have ponytails and wear feathers? Is our skin tone supposed to be dark brown along with our stoic facial expressions?
The bottom line is that things are changing. Natives can look like anyone. They can be black, white, Asian … whatever. Why are we judging one another? It’s bad enough when another race judges us. Blood quantum will always be an issue. It was created so one day we would be extinct. I guess that day is coming quicker than we anticipated
"Well, they don’t act Native." Act Native? Teach me, please. City Indian, reservation Indian, country Indian … we are all the same. Just because you grew up on the reservation doesn’t mean you have more credibility over city Indians or vice versa. What kind of example are we leaving the young ones? It should come down to the individual. It should come down to the Native pride inside. It should come down to how much you care about Native peoples, not by the way you look or if you are enrolled or not. (Walker, D. 2009).
"You're an Indian? What part?"
That's the universal question many mixed-blood Native Americans are asked every day. How many times have you mentioned in passing that you are Cherokee to find your conversation interrupted by intrusive questions about percentage? How many times have you answered those questions? Well stop! That's right -- stop answering rude questions. (Berry, C. 2009).
The history of blood quantum begins with the Indian rolls and is a concept introduced to Native Americans from white culture. Throughout Native history blood has never really been a factor in determining who was or was not included in a tribe. Many Native American tribes practiced adoption, a process whereby non-tribal members would be adopted into the tribe and over time become fully functioning members of the group. Adoption was occasionally preceded by capture. Many tribes would capture members of neighboring tribes, white settlers, or members of enemy tribes.... The fact that the adoptee was sometimes of a different ethnic origin was of little importance to the tribe. (Berry, C. 2009).
In this day and age, however, quantum is important in many ways. In order to become a registered member of any federally recognized Indian Nation you must first get a CDIB (Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood). This CDIB is issued by the BIA and simply states that the United States government certifies that you have a specified degree of Indian blood and are a member of a given federally recognized tribe. Once you have a CDIB you can become a recognized member of that tribe. Without a quantum you cannot become a registered member of a tribe. (Berry, C. 2009).
Blood quantum, while it appears harmless, has had a very negative effect on many Indian Nations. In many cases the issue of quantum has divided full-bloods and mixed-bloods, causing resentment. The issue also divides tribal members and non-members on the issue of proof. From a historical and cultural perspective, the idea of blood quantum is dangerous.(Berry, C. 2009).
Blood quantum is a scientific, government-approved method of determining blood purity and race purity. One of the most frightening examples of a government's interest in blood purity comes as recently as the Twentieth century in Nazi Germany, when Hitler wanted to create an Aryan master race. The consequence was that millions of people were killed because they were not Aryan. While Nazi Germany is an extreme example, blood quantum is nonetheless a clinical, inhuman, and careless way to determine the ethnic authenticity of a person. We are not Gregor Mendel's cross-pollinated pea plants; we are people. Our ethnicity and cultural identity are tied to our family history, our surroundings, our own hopes and expectations, and our self-identity. To measure our "Indianness" by a percentage is to completely eliminate the human element. And to allow others to judge us based on a number is to continue a harmful trend.(Berry, C. 2009)
References.
1. Cook, R (No date) Heart of Colonilism Bleeds Blood Quantum [online] available from: http://americanindiansource.com/bloodquantum.html [accessed: 03.03.2009]
2. Orrin (No date) Measuring Blood: The American Indian Blood Quantum [online] available from: Measuring Blood: The American Indian Blood Quantum
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
3.Forbes, J.D (2000) Blood Quantum: A relic of Racism and Termination [online] available from: http://www.weyanoke.org/jdf-BloodQuantum.html
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
4. Walker, D (2007) Blood quantum, federal recognition and everything in between [online] available from: http://www.reznetnews.org/blogs/red-clout/blood-quantum-federal-recognition-and-everything-between-480[accessed: 03.03.2009]
5. Schmidt, R.W (No date) America Indian Identity, Blood Quantum and Heritage in the 21st Century: A Bioanthropological Perspective. [online] available from: http://montana.academia.edu/RyanSchmidt/Papers/9161/American-Indian-Identity--Blood-Quantum-and-Heritage-in-the-21st-Century--A-Bioanthropological-Perspective
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
6. Berry, C (2009) Blood Quantum-Why It matters, and Why it shouldn't [online] available from: http://www.allthingscherokee.com/articles_gene_040101.html
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
Mark H. Gardner, Attorney at Law
Re: blood quantum
First, in relation to determinations of tribal membership, no US standard will exist. US law leaves all jurisdiction over determinations of tribal membership to the particular recognized tribe or band in question.
Second, the degree of relationship of a party to a tribal member and the percentage of a party's tribal heritage or percentage of overall Indian heritage may be determined by any standard the particular tribe or band chooses to recognize. For example, a tribe might choose to count adopted relationship in one case and choose not to recognize adopted relationsip in another in another. No appeal to federal courts is be possible. The tribe's highest court or tribal council would simply determine, including simply determining what rules would apply -- temporarily or permanently.
Finally, the science of blood testing permits very authoritative determinations of parentage on either side, and also determination of sibling relationship. Determination of grandparent status is possible but rests on slightly less reliable statsitical results. All those blood-type and DNA tests are admitted routinely in paternity and probate cases. A tribal council therefore could not reasonably argue that the science underlying blood-type or genetic testing was unreliable.
A still more exotic and unusual form of testing rarely or never yet used in family matters, mitochondrial DNA analysis, can determine the matrilineal status of parties (mother's mother's mother's mother, etc.) running back for unbelievably long periods -- sometimes tens of thousands of years. Where an Indian father was proven and some quantum of Indian blood on the mother's side was suspected, the mitochondrial DNA test could bring the forefront of genetic testing into use in domestic relations for possibly the first time.
Many Native People have gotten so used to the idea of "blood quantum" (degree of "blood") that sometimes the origin of this racist concept is forgotten. It's use started in 1705 when the colony of Virginia adopted a series of laws which denied civil rights to any "negro, mulatto, or Indian" and which defined the above terms by stating that "the child of an Indian, and the child, grandchild, or great grandchild of a negro shall be deemed accounted, held, and taken to be a mulatto." Thus both a person of American race and a person of half-American race (a "half-blood" in other words) were treated as legally inferior persons. (Forbes, J.D. 2000).
Many Native People have gotten so used to the idea of "blood quantum" (degree of "blood") that sometimes the origin of this racist concept is forgotten. It's use started in 1705 when the colony of Virginia adopted a series of laws which denied civil rights to any "negro, mulatto, or Indian" and which defined the above terms by stating that "the child of an Indian, and the child, grandchild, or great grandchild of a negro shall be deemed accounted, held, and taken to be a mulatto." Thus both a person of American race and a person of half-American race (a "half-blood" in other words) were treated as legally inferior persons.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Colony after colony and state after state followed Virginia's example in using blood quantum as a way of determining who could have the privileges accorded to white persons. For example, Alabama's code stated that "all negroes, mulattoes, Indians and all persons of mixed blood, to the third generation inclusive, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person, whether bond or free; shall be taken, and deemed incapable in law, to be witnesses.... except for or against each other." North Carolina possessed a code which prohibited marriages between white persons and "an Indian, Negro , Mustee, or Mulatto.... or any person of Mixed Blood to the Third Generation." Such laws meant that a part-Indian of one-eighth American ancestry and seven-eighth European ancestry would not have acquired sufficient European "blood" to be accorded the legal privileges of whiteness.
The racist use of blood quantum continued without a break. In 1866 Virginia decreed that "Every person having one-fourth or more Negro blood shall be deemed a colored person, and every person not a colored person having one-fourth or more Indian blood shall be deemed an Indian." (This is perhaps where the one-quarter blood concept used by the Bureau of Indian Affairs originated). In the 20th century Virginia broadened the term "colored" to include all Indians with any trace of African ancestry, if living off-reservation, and with more than 1/32 African ancestry, if living on either the Pamunkey or Mattaponi reservations.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
The Federal government began to also use "degree of blood" in the latter part of the nineteenth-century, especially in relation to the enrollment of persons before the Dawes allotment commission. The use of "full," "one-half" etc. at that time was both an extension of the previous racist system and also a step in terminating Native Americans. Persons with greater amounts of white ancestry were assumed to be more competent than persons with lesser amounts. In other words, the degree of white blood was much more important than the degree of American ancestry. The white blood entitled an Indian citizen to greater privileges, including being able to have "wardship" restrictions removed, being able to sell property, acquire the right to vote in state and federal elections, and so on. Thus it may be that many persons chose to exaggerate their amount of white ancestry when enrolling. Persons without white ancestry were restricted persons, with the Bureau controlling their financial lives. It was also expected that when a person became "competent" ( white enough) he would no longer be an Indian and that process would eventually terminate a tribe's existence.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Thus the recording of blood quantum is both a product of white racism and of white social science theories of a racist nature, and also a product of a plan wherein Native nations are expected to vanish when the white blood quantum reaches a certain level (above three-fourths, for example). For this latter reason alone, the use of blood quantum is exceedingly dangerous for Native Nations today, although the Bureau and some eastern Oklahoma Indians don't seem to care about this danger.
(Jack D. Forbes:2000)
First, Indian ancestry is to be computed only from so-called Federally-recognized tribes ( in spite of the ambiguous status of some tribes at this time). The changes specifically limit "Indian blood" to ancestry from a Federally-recognized tribe and define the latter as one listed in the Federal Register as a tribe recognized by the Secretary of the Interior. This means that one's degree of Indian blood cannot include American Indian or Eskimo-Inuit ancestry derived from a terminated tribe, from an administratively-deleted tribe, from a Canadian, Greenlandic, Mexican or other non-US group, or from any state-recognized tribe (as along the east coast), or perhaps from any newly-recognized tribe. Thus a person who is 1/2 Inuit from Alaska and 1/2 Inuit from Canada or Greenland can only be counted as 1/2. (Jack D. Forbes)
The possibility exists that numerous persons of full American indigenous racial ancestry will be counted as mixed-bloods and that, gradually, American Indians will be eliminated as a people as they marry non-Indians or currently non-Federally recognized Natives. This is a form of self-termination. (Jack D. Forbes:2000)
Well, the way the government defines whether someone is a "real" Indian or not is they measure their blood. They have some arcane way of doing this by dividing the number of generations since all your ancestors were pure-blood by the number of marriages with people who aren't pure-blood. By their counting, I think I'm 7/8 Indian. Some of it is Muskogee, but they don't care about that. They're just trying to see how close we are or are not to white. (Orrin:2008)
One, it puts pressure on Indians not to marry white people or their children will lose their heritage, and that bothers a lot of people. Two, it means that if some of your ancestors aren't in the records, you can be denied being an Indian. Three, it's wrong for outsiders to tell you if you can or can't belong to an ethnic group. Nobody makes African-Americans prove their entire family line and apply for some governmental Certificate of Degree of African Blood before they can get a scholarship from the NAACP or put "Black-owned" on their business if they want to. And four, most disturbingly: it guarantees the extinction of the American Indian. By this standard, white is the default, and everyone is approaching whiteness. Someone who is 1/8 Indian is considered white, and that is the end of their Indianness-- they are white and their children will be white, forever.(Orrin:2008)
More than 560 tribes are recognized by the federal government. More are fighting for recognition. With recognition come certain benefits such as health care, but more importantly, there comes a sense of pride, a sense of belonging. (Walker, D. 2009).
Rarely is blood quantum ever brought up unless it has to do with enrollment. Most non-Natives don’t understand the process of how someone is enrolled or federally recognized by their blood quantum. It’s confusing, some have told me. I agree. We are the only U.S. citizens who have to report our Native blood quantum..(Walker, D. 2009).
How can someone be a quarter Native? In other words, is one of their legs considered their only Native part? It’s laughable, yet very serious and, to most Natives, it’s an everyday struggle. .(Walker, D. 2009).
It’s kind of scary knowing tribes can oust other Natives at any time. Does that mean they are no longer Native? But it goes back to the age-old question: Who is Native?
"Well they don’t look Native." Yeah, we all heard that one before. What are we supposed to look like? Chief Yahoo? Are we supposed to have ponytails and wear feathers? Is our skin tone supposed to be dark brown along with our stoic facial expressions?
The bottom line is that things are changing. Natives can look like anyone. They can be black, white, Asian … whatever. Why are we judging one another? It’s bad enough when another race judges us. Blood quantum will always be an issue. It was created so one day we would be extinct. I guess that day is coming quicker than we anticipated
"Well, they don’t act Native." Act Native? Teach me, please. City Indian, reservation Indian, country Indian … we are all the same. Just because you grew up on the reservation doesn’t mean you have more credibility over city Indians or vice versa. What kind of example are we leaving the young ones? It should come down to the individual. It should come down to the Native pride inside. It should come down to how much you care about Native peoples, not by the way you look or if you are enrolled or not. (Walker, D. 2009).
"You're an Indian? What part?"
That's the universal question many mixed-blood Native Americans are asked every day. How many times have you mentioned in passing that you are Cherokee to find your conversation interrupted by intrusive questions about percentage? How many times have you answered those questions? Well stop! That's right -- stop answering rude questions. (Berry, C. 2009).
The history of blood quantum begins with the Indian rolls and is a concept introduced to Native Americans from white culture. Throughout Native history blood has never really been a factor in determining who was or was not included in a tribe. Many Native American tribes practiced adoption, a process whereby non-tribal members would be adopted into the tribe and over time become fully functioning members of the group. Adoption was occasionally preceded by capture. Many tribes would capture members of neighboring tribes, white settlers, or members of enemy tribes.... The fact that the adoptee was sometimes of a different ethnic origin was of little importance to the tribe. (Berry, C. 2009).
In this day and age, however, quantum is important in many ways. In order to become a registered member of any federally recognized Indian Nation you must first get a CDIB (Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood). This CDIB is issued by the BIA and simply states that the United States government certifies that you have a specified degree of Indian blood and are a member of a given federally recognized tribe. Once you have a CDIB you can become a recognized member of that tribe. Without a quantum you cannot become a registered member of a tribe. (Berry, C. 2009).
Blood quantum, while it appears harmless, has had a very negative effect on many Indian Nations. In many cases the issue of quantum has divided full-bloods and mixed-bloods, causing resentment. The issue also divides tribal members and non-members on the issue of proof. From a historical and cultural perspective, the idea of blood quantum is dangerous.(Berry, C. 2009).
Blood quantum is a scientific, government-approved method of determining blood purity and race purity. One of the most frightening examples of a government's interest in blood purity comes as recently as the Twentieth century in Nazi Germany, when Hitler wanted to create an Aryan master race. The consequence was that millions of people were killed because they were not Aryan. While Nazi Germany is an extreme example, blood quantum is nonetheless a clinical, inhuman, and careless way to determine the ethnic authenticity of a person. We are not Gregor Mendel's cross-pollinated pea plants; we are people. Our ethnicity and cultural identity are tied to our family history, our surroundings, our own hopes and expectations, and our self-identity. To measure our "Indianness" by a percentage is to completely eliminate the human element. And to allow others to judge us based on a number is to continue a harmful trend.(Berry, C. 2009)
References.
1. Cook, R (No date) Heart of Colonilism Bleeds Blood Quantum [online] available from: http://americanindiansource.com/bloodquantum.html [accessed: 03.03.2009]
2. Orrin (No date) Measuring Blood: The American Indian Blood Quantum [online] available from: Measuring Blood: The American Indian Blood Quantum
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
3.Forbes, J.D (2000) Blood Quantum: A relic of Racism and Termination [online] available from: http://www.weyanoke.org/jdf-BloodQuantum.html
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
4. Walker, D (2007) Blood quantum, federal recognition and everything in between [online] available from: http://www.reznetnews.org/blogs/red-clout/blood-quantum-federal-recognition-and-everything-between-480[accessed: 03.03.2009]
5. Schmidt, R.W (No date) America Indian Identity, Blood Quantum and Heritage in the 21st Century: A Bioanthropological Perspective. [online] available from: http://montana.academia.edu/RyanSchmidt/Papers/9161/American-Indian-Identity--Blood-Quantum-and-Heritage-in-the-21st-Century--A-Bioanthropological-Perspective
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
6. Berry, C (2009) Blood Quantum-Why It matters, and Why it shouldn't [online] available from: http://www.allthingscherokee.com/articles_gene_040101.html
[accessed: 03.03.2009]
Oppression, Prejudice and Wars within my Society and that of the Native American. Exploring : ‘The Other’.
Kant’’s ideas on race Justified colonialism as moral
‘In the hot countries the human being matures in all aspects earlier, but does not, however, reach the perfection of those in the temperate zones. Humanity is at its greatest perfection in the race of the whites. The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them and at the lowest point are a part of the American peoples.’ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Prejudice within society has always been apparent. However, it seems now discrimination is upon revealing religious identity which is a staple of target.
The projecting of beliefs through religious symbols is now being attacked. This is due to the uncovering fact that others do not like the idea of projecting an alternative belief in openly saying ‘I am different, have different beliefs - and ultimately I AM PROUD’
For it is the want and desire for the minority and ’others’ to want to strive to be like the majority. This is their means of making you feel as though we need to ‘Fit In’ to their culture and community.
This dis-like of showing one’s differing beliefs and making these known have been cause for racial abuse.
Recently we have seen the inequality of Muslim woman in France being subjected to racial attack for choosing to symbolise their identity and embrace their faith through wearing the ‘Hijab’.
PROTEST
FRENCH HIJAB BAN
French President Jacques Chirac has asked
Parliament to pass laws legalising the
persecution of Muslims, effectively
criminalizing the practice of
Islam in France...
Innovative Minds (c) 2004
The French President Jacques Chirac has asked the French Parliament to pass a law banning the hijab in France. Hijab is an integral part of Islam, it is derived from Quranic injunctions and its practice is not symbolic or a fashion or cultural statement but rather it is a manifestation of being a Muslim and following the deen of Islam. An attack on hijab is clearly an attack on Islam. To criminalize hijab is to criminalize Islam. This is the intension of this law - to outlaw the practice of Islam.
In the same way for many years the turban has been attacked.
As seen throughout history, the concept of acceptance relatively does not come with ease. In today’s media enriched world the unique identity of the Sikhs, a uniform consisting of turbans and uncut hair, is often misunderstood. This is commonly seen through news agencies by not presenting information clearly on Sikhism, by major motion pictures stereotyping Sikhs in demeaning roles, or reference texts presenting conflicting information to what Sikhism is.
(Dhami, S.S: 2008)
The stereotyping in society has played towards the racial abuse by setting a divide and creating a way of defining a culture which is both un-true and bigotry.
The obstacles of incorrect media representation and lack of education have plagued the Sikhs as they travel to new parts of the world. Furthermore, these obstacles have started to infiltrate their historical homeland in India. Members of the community have either assimilated into the mainstream by removing their identity, or have altered their identity due to incorrect media influence.(Dhami, S.S:2008)
It is sad at acknowledging the accomplishment of the authorities whom have condemned us to these stereotypes, as we are now beginning to abandon out beliefs in order to conform to societies ‘uniform’
THE McCAULEY LEGACY
‘We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.’
Extracts from Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education 1835
(Kubler, G.A: No date)
Surely a nation should stand for their beliefs and culture and help maintain this?
Burka, turban and cross: in multi faith Britain, who dares to set the dress rules?
Where will it end?
In 2006 the BBC was reported to have been in talks with Fiona Bruce about her wearing of a cross to read the news. The agreed compromise was that she should not wear one that was large and shiny, as this would be distracting for viewers. (In the Sixties, when I lobbied the BBC hierarchy to let women read the news, I was told that it could never happen as their clothing would distract viewers!)
(Bakewell, J:2009)
Is it now that we are subjected to having a 'uniform' which we must live by?
A uniform is surely made to present all individuals to look as much like one another as possible. Therefore in turn to not bring your own identity to public examination.
The typical Muslim or Sikh should not have to hate all athesiets and treat woman as inferior.
* QUESTION: TURBAN BANNING WHAT IS THE RATIONALE AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE?
* FREE THE INDIVIDUAL FROM RELIGIOUS RESTRICTIONS
* FREE WOMEN FROM SUBJUGATION
* PROTECT FRENCH CHILDREN FROM BEING EXPOSED TO RELIGION
* ASSERT NEUTRALITY OF STATE AS SECULAR
* EQUALITY OF ALL BY MAKING EVERONE SIMILAR
In producing these divides and stereotyping we then embark on a natural path of seperation and fear of the other, which establishes hate. Is it not then this reasoning which lead so many to moral justice through war?
The Native Americans mis-understood and stereotyped causing the White man to feel threatened and separated form the Natives. We all are aware that this intiates the feeling of ‘Fear’ towards another society which is projected with means of War.
The textual definition of racism pertains only to race, but in practice racism is a consequence of group think, whereby a group of people decides to designate itself as a collective and starts delineating its relationship with other collectives - or other people in general - with a sense of supremacy. When coupled with economic and/or political dominance, supremacy translates into various forms of subjugation and cruelty.
The adulation of the self/collective and the disparagement of the other is an ancient practice, as old as human civilisation itself. It is everlasting for the simple reason that it has always served as a political and economic tool and will likely remain effective so long as the quest for political and material power drives our behaviour.
(Ramzy Baroud : 2007)
In employing these segregations within our society the political leaders become able to use us a puppets to gain political power.
This use of humanity can be viewed in many wars and disputes in both past and present life.
This fear became apparent for the Native American when the White settlers acted on an onslaught of all Native’s purely for engaging in a ritual which was the unknown to them- The Ghost Dance.
At the battle of Wounded Knee it was this very cause which insinuated a blood bath which is classified as genocide.
Since incidents such as September 11th we have seen prejudice grow within the easter-community.
Judging others by their covers?
“Turban-wearing Sikh cabdrivers have been yelled at by potential passengers; a local phlebotomist was told by a patient not to take blood because she is Indian.”
(Florangela Davila: 2004)
Muslim people and all Eastern people are being scrutinised and judged upon their ethnic origin.
“There have been 14 cases of passengers being denied seating or being pulled off airlines because of their ethnicity, according to the Anti-Discrimination Committee. And last week in Chicago, three men of Assyrian descent filed a federal lawsuit charging United Airlines with racial or ethnic discrimination. It is believed to be the first such "flying while Arab" lawsuit, as these incidents have been dubbed, the newest incarnation of "driving while black."
(Florangela Davila: 2004)
How is it that a passenger can be removed of an airline for merely being of an ethnic ascendant?
“To what limit will be profiling tolerated? Would we now ask somebody to leave on terms of being black. Have we not climbed mountains in equality today? It seems not, these means of placing a culture into a box have only be passed onto another ethnic group.” Florangela Davila
It is apparent that Asian groups are however not always at the discrimination but however are engaging in discriminating.
An ex war veteran, bus driver was attacked by a gang of Asian youths in a Oldham; A predominantly Asian town.
“Walter Chamberlain is awaiting surgery for his injuries
A reward for more than £13,000 is being offered to help catch a group of Asian youths suspected of injuring a war veteran in a racially-motivated attack.” (BBC News: 2001)
A bus driver was attacked by a gang of Asian youths in a predominantly Asian area of ‘Oldham’.
It begs the question does society form its racial attacks on those who are always the minority.
It is easy to view barriers between different cultures, however what about differences within one’s own culture?
We know Sikhs have had many wars against those cultures which are our neighbours; Pakistan and Hindustan.
However let us take a look into the prejudice within people of both are same ethnicity and religious beliefs.
Each Sikh is broken down into the caste system. The caste system controls and dictates a hierarchy in India which people live by. The caste ‘s are formed by higher caste and lower caste depending on ancestral occupation. This caste system sets a divide between a society whom follow the exact same belief system. It is through this caste system that people in both India and amongst British Asians man creates hate and rejection through placing us within social status. Those castes whom are seen as the lowest a known as ’untouchables’ not to be touched; subjecting them to being seen as a disease.
`India is ready to discuss racism so long as it is in other countries, but not caste in its own backyard.'' Indian officials describe caste as an internal problem that can only be cured by implementing - and strengthening - anti-discrimination laws. Ranjana Kumari, a women's rights activist, supported the Dalits' complaints but questioned the wisdom of looking to an international conference for help. ``It should not become a stick for the international community to beat India with,'' she said. Human rights activist Swami Agnivesh says much of the discrimination in the caste system results from the actions of Brahmins, the priestly caste.
It divides people into four main castes, but there also are those outside the system, the ``untouchables,'' who now call themselves ``Dalits,'' literally ``broken people.'' Though discrimination based on caste has been outlawed since India's constitution was adopted in 1950, the practice pervades society. ``Over time, this system was corrupted by the Brahmins to preserve their superiority and to ensure that people were available to do menial jobs without rising up in revolt,'' he said. Dalits long have done onerous work for low pay. They clean out public toilets, skin dead animals or labor to pay their forefathers' debts.
(Nirmala, G : 2009)
Why does society then do this to there own people?
Well the answer seems simple. Why did white people use Blacks as slaves for years, to gain power and control on others in order to achieve a better life for there own.
By asserting a social status upon somebody ie: ‘Untouchable’ or ‘Slave’ you immediately gain control of that persons ability to climb to the top. Therefore always being readily available to do those jobs they don’t want to do.
``Over time, this system was corrupted by the Brahmins to preserve their superiority and to ensure that people were available to do menial jobs without rising up in revolt,'' he said. Dalits long have done onerous work for low pay. They clean out public toilets, skin dead animals or labor to pay their forefathers' debts. After independence from Britain in 1947, India launched an affirmative action plan to wipe out caste distinctions, setting aside places for Dalits in universities, government employment and legislative assembly seats.
(Nirmala, G: 2009)
It is hypocritical of the Sikh faith , which states Caste should not be taken into account as all man is equal.
However it is eminent in our society today, and many still have personal feelings which are embedded within us to set us apart from our own people.
These suppressed growing of hate and prejudice against one another has on several times been acted upon.
Sunni and Shias are both Muslims however differ in slight ways due to differences of beliefs and prophets.
To the outsider, the differences between the Sunni and Shia Islamic sects are hard to recognize.
The five pillars of Islam – daily prayer; fasting during Ramadan; alms giving; the pilgrimage to Mecca; and belief in one, unitary god – are at the core of both faiths, and most mainstream clerics in each denomination recognize adherents of the other side as "legitimate" Muslims.
The Koran is the sacred text for both. They believe Muhammad was the prophet and that there will be a resurrection followed by a final judgment when the world ends, recent events in Iraq and Lebanon have shown, the differences between the believers are not only seen as important by the communities but now, as they have for centuries, rest at the core of bloody political struggles.
While religious differences are real and remain important, the breakdown over Shia and Sunni in Iraq is about group identity as much as it is about disagreements over proper worship.
In Iraq, many Sunnis and Shiites who are not particularly devout are participating in the bloodshed, fighting to advance group interests.
"I think that Sunni and Shia group identifiers have become more important in a lot of ways that are not essentially religious,'' says Barbara Petzen, an expert at Harvard University's Middle Eastern Studies Centre.
Though a majority in Iran and Iraq, Shiites make up just 15 percent of the world's Muslims. Their history of defeat and frequent subjugation has also led to a cult of death and martyrdom within Shia’s.
Such expressions of piety are looked at with disgust by hard-line Sunnis like the clergy in Saudi Arabia, who view the veneration of Hussein and other members of the prophet's family as a violation of monotheism. This view has frequently led extremist groups like Al Qaeda to attack Shia's as heretics.
(Murphy, D: 2009)
Sunni and Shia’s have engaged in this ongoing war of beliefs for a number of years now. It seems that there is no real reason to this other than the dis-like of alternative beliefs within the Muslim religion.
This is a clear examples of how one’s dissimilarity of beliefs can lead to an underlining detestation of another society can cause bloodshed.
I was told only a few days ago of a Sikh boy living in my home town was attacked by a Muslim gang. They began sawing this man into pieces. Everyone claimed to have heard screaming however no body thought to go to look or help. This murder was due to a racial attack within the Sikh-Muslim divide. This divide has been known to have gone of for many years since 1947, when the British separated India and Pakistan.
Ever since the partition of the sub-continent in 1947, when Britain dismantled its Indian empire, India and Pakistan have been arch rivals.
The animosity has its roots in religion and history, and is epitomised by the long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This has recently escalated into a dangerous nuclear arms race.
This boy a young man from India who‘d come over to study, was horrifically tortured. At hearing sirens of a police car which hadn’t been for them they panicked and cut his head off.
At hearing this news I felt stunned and mentally shook. The idea of such a traumatic death, the horrors of it seeping in my mind. I was frozen. Immediately the people whom I was with began a discussion which soon turned into a outpour of intolerance.
The cultural and religious segregation of India and Pakistan goes back centuries, however one would think in the countries. Today’s Asian-British society is not there so why do they still carry this injustice on?
It was apparent that the more these racial attacks occur the more retaliation and hate is created. It is a vicious cycle. The reason society is not able to move forward is due to the underlining fact we can not let go of our ancestral past’s.
References:
1. Innovative Minds (2004) Innovative Minds: Protest French Hijab Ban [online] available from: http://www.inminds.co.uk/french-hijab-ban.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
2. Murphy, D (2009) Islam’s Sunni-Shia split [online] available from: http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0117/p25s01-wome.html%202009 [accessed] 10.04.2009]
3.Baroud, R (2007) Racism and War [online] available from: http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=6846 [accessed:10.04.2009]
4. BBC News UK War (2001) veteran in racist attack [online] available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1294021.stm [accessed:10.04.2009]
5. Nirmala, G (2009) Indian Caste System Discriminates [online] available from: http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/georgesept62001.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
6. Davila, F (2004) Typical Muslim families with Jobs and Now Bear Burden of Suspicion [online] The Seattle Times available from: http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/news/nation-world/sept11anniversary/oneyearlater/suspicion.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
7. Dhami, S.S (2008) Restoring The Pride [online] Dashmesh Pictures available from: http://www.restoringthepride.com/mission.html [accessed:10.04.2009]
8. Kubler, G.A (No date) Tensions of Stereotypes as Politics Jasdev Singh Rai [online] http://www.cultuurwetenschap.be/conferences/ASIA-LINK/downloads/Tensions%20of%20Stereotypes%20-%20Jasdev%20Singh%20Rai.ppt. [accessed: 10.04.2009]
‘In the hot countries the human being matures in all aspects earlier, but does not, however, reach the perfection of those in the temperate zones. Humanity is at its greatest perfection in the race of the whites. The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them and at the lowest point are a part of the American peoples.’ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Prejudice within society has always been apparent. However, it seems now discrimination is upon revealing religious identity which is a staple of target.
The projecting of beliefs through religious symbols is now being attacked. This is due to the uncovering fact that others do not like the idea of projecting an alternative belief in openly saying ‘I am different, have different beliefs - and ultimately I AM PROUD’
For it is the want and desire for the minority and ’others’ to want to strive to be like the majority. This is their means of making you feel as though we need to ‘Fit In’ to their culture and community.
This dis-like of showing one’s differing beliefs and making these known have been cause for racial abuse.
Recently we have seen the inequality of Muslim woman in France being subjected to racial attack for choosing to symbolise their identity and embrace their faith through wearing the ‘Hijab’.
PROTEST
FRENCH HIJAB BAN
French President Jacques Chirac has asked
Parliament to pass laws legalising the
persecution of Muslims, effectively
criminalizing the practice of
Islam in France...
Innovative Minds (c) 2004
The French President Jacques Chirac has asked the French Parliament to pass a law banning the hijab in France. Hijab is an integral part of Islam, it is derived from Quranic injunctions and its practice is not symbolic or a fashion or cultural statement but rather it is a manifestation of being a Muslim and following the deen of Islam. An attack on hijab is clearly an attack on Islam. To criminalize hijab is to criminalize Islam. This is the intension of this law - to outlaw the practice of Islam.
In the same way for many years the turban has been attacked.
As seen throughout history, the concept of acceptance relatively does not come with ease. In today’s media enriched world the unique identity of the Sikhs, a uniform consisting of turbans and uncut hair, is often misunderstood. This is commonly seen through news agencies by not presenting information clearly on Sikhism, by major motion pictures stereotyping Sikhs in demeaning roles, or reference texts presenting conflicting information to what Sikhism is.
(Dhami, S.S: 2008)
The stereotyping in society has played towards the racial abuse by setting a divide and creating a way of defining a culture which is both un-true and bigotry.
The obstacles of incorrect media representation and lack of education have plagued the Sikhs as they travel to new parts of the world. Furthermore, these obstacles have started to infiltrate their historical homeland in India. Members of the community have either assimilated into the mainstream by removing their identity, or have altered their identity due to incorrect media influence.(Dhami, S.S:2008)
It is sad at acknowledging the accomplishment of the authorities whom have condemned us to these stereotypes, as we are now beginning to abandon out beliefs in order to conform to societies ‘uniform’
THE McCAULEY LEGACY
‘We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.’
Extracts from Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education 1835
(Kubler, G.A: No date)
Surely a nation should stand for their beliefs and culture and help maintain this?
Burka, turban and cross: in multi faith Britain, who dares to set the dress rules?
Where will it end?
In 2006 the BBC was reported to have been in talks with Fiona Bruce about her wearing of a cross to read the news. The agreed compromise was that she should not wear one that was large and shiny, as this would be distracting for viewers. (In the Sixties, when I lobbied the BBC hierarchy to let women read the news, I was told that it could never happen as their clothing would distract viewers!)
(Bakewell, J:2009)
Is it now that we are subjected to having a 'uniform' which we must live by?
A uniform is surely made to present all individuals to look as much like one another as possible. Therefore in turn to not bring your own identity to public examination.
The typical Muslim or Sikh should not have to hate all athesiets and treat woman as inferior.
* QUESTION: TURBAN BANNING WHAT IS THE RATIONALE AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE?
* FREE THE INDIVIDUAL FROM RELIGIOUS RESTRICTIONS
* FREE WOMEN FROM SUBJUGATION
* PROTECT FRENCH CHILDREN FROM BEING EXPOSED TO RELIGION
* ASSERT NEUTRALITY OF STATE AS SECULAR
* EQUALITY OF ALL BY MAKING EVERONE SIMILAR
In producing these divides and stereotyping we then embark on a natural path of seperation and fear of the other, which establishes hate. Is it not then this reasoning which lead so many to moral justice through war?
The Native Americans mis-understood and stereotyped causing the White man to feel threatened and separated form the Natives. We all are aware that this intiates the feeling of ‘Fear’ towards another society which is projected with means of War.
The textual definition of racism pertains only to race, but in practice racism is a consequence of group think, whereby a group of people decides to designate itself as a collective and starts delineating its relationship with other collectives - or other people in general - with a sense of supremacy. When coupled with economic and/or political dominance, supremacy translates into various forms of subjugation and cruelty.
The adulation of the self/collective and the disparagement of the other is an ancient practice, as old as human civilisation itself. It is everlasting for the simple reason that it has always served as a political and economic tool and will likely remain effective so long as the quest for political and material power drives our behaviour.
(Ramzy Baroud : 2007)
In employing these segregations within our society the political leaders become able to use us a puppets to gain political power.
This use of humanity can be viewed in many wars and disputes in both past and present life.
This fear became apparent for the Native American when the White settlers acted on an onslaught of all Native’s purely for engaging in a ritual which was the unknown to them- The Ghost Dance.
At the battle of Wounded Knee it was this very cause which insinuated a blood bath which is classified as genocide.
Since incidents such as September 11th we have seen prejudice grow within the easter-community.
Judging others by their covers?
“Turban-wearing Sikh cabdrivers have been yelled at by potential passengers; a local phlebotomist was told by a patient not to take blood because she is Indian.”
(Florangela Davila: 2004)
Muslim people and all Eastern people are being scrutinised and judged upon their ethnic origin.
“There have been 14 cases of passengers being denied seating or being pulled off airlines because of their ethnicity, according to the Anti-Discrimination Committee. And last week in Chicago, three men of Assyrian descent filed a federal lawsuit charging United Airlines with racial or ethnic discrimination. It is believed to be the first such "flying while Arab" lawsuit, as these incidents have been dubbed, the newest incarnation of "driving while black."
(Florangela Davila: 2004)
How is it that a passenger can be removed of an airline for merely being of an ethnic ascendant?
“To what limit will be profiling tolerated? Would we now ask somebody to leave on terms of being black. Have we not climbed mountains in equality today? It seems not, these means of placing a culture into a box have only be passed onto another ethnic group.” Florangela Davila
It is apparent that Asian groups are however not always at the discrimination but however are engaging in discriminating.
An ex war veteran, bus driver was attacked by a gang of Asian youths in a Oldham; A predominantly Asian town.
“Walter Chamberlain is awaiting surgery for his injuries
A reward for more than £13,000 is being offered to help catch a group of Asian youths suspected of injuring a war veteran in a racially-motivated attack.” (BBC News: 2001)
A bus driver was attacked by a gang of Asian youths in a predominantly Asian area of ‘Oldham’.
It begs the question does society form its racial attacks on those who are always the minority.
It is easy to view barriers between different cultures, however what about differences within one’s own culture?
We know Sikhs have had many wars against those cultures which are our neighbours; Pakistan and Hindustan.
However let us take a look into the prejudice within people of both are same ethnicity and religious beliefs.
Each Sikh is broken down into the caste system. The caste system controls and dictates a hierarchy in India which people live by. The caste ‘s are formed by higher caste and lower caste depending on ancestral occupation. This caste system sets a divide between a society whom follow the exact same belief system. It is through this caste system that people in both India and amongst British Asians man creates hate and rejection through placing us within social status. Those castes whom are seen as the lowest a known as ’untouchables’ not to be touched; subjecting them to being seen as a disease.
`India is ready to discuss racism so long as it is in other countries, but not caste in its own backyard.'' Indian officials describe caste as an internal problem that can only be cured by implementing - and strengthening - anti-discrimination laws. Ranjana Kumari, a women's rights activist, supported the Dalits' complaints but questioned the wisdom of looking to an international conference for help. ``It should not become a stick for the international community to beat India with,'' she said. Human rights activist Swami Agnivesh says much of the discrimination in the caste system results from the actions of Brahmins, the priestly caste.
It divides people into four main castes, but there also are those outside the system, the ``untouchables,'' who now call themselves ``Dalits,'' literally ``broken people.'' Though discrimination based on caste has been outlawed since India's constitution was adopted in 1950, the practice pervades society. ``Over time, this system was corrupted by the Brahmins to preserve their superiority and to ensure that people were available to do menial jobs without rising up in revolt,'' he said. Dalits long have done onerous work for low pay. They clean out public toilets, skin dead animals or labor to pay their forefathers' debts.
(Nirmala, G : 2009)
Why does society then do this to there own people?
Well the answer seems simple. Why did white people use Blacks as slaves for years, to gain power and control on others in order to achieve a better life for there own.
By asserting a social status upon somebody ie: ‘Untouchable’ or ‘Slave’ you immediately gain control of that persons ability to climb to the top. Therefore always being readily available to do those jobs they don’t want to do.
``Over time, this system was corrupted by the Brahmins to preserve their superiority and to ensure that people were available to do menial jobs without rising up in revolt,'' he said. Dalits long have done onerous work for low pay. They clean out public toilets, skin dead animals or labor to pay their forefathers' debts. After independence from Britain in 1947, India launched an affirmative action plan to wipe out caste distinctions, setting aside places for Dalits in universities, government employment and legislative assembly seats.
(Nirmala, G: 2009)
It is hypocritical of the Sikh faith , which states Caste should not be taken into account as all man is equal.
However it is eminent in our society today, and many still have personal feelings which are embedded within us to set us apart from our own people.
These suppressed growing of hate and prejudice against one another has on several times been acted upon.
Sunni and Shias are both Muslims however differ in slight ways due to differences of beliefs and prophets.
To the outsider, the differences between the Sunni and Shia Islamic sects are hard to recognize.
The five pillars of Islam – daily prayer; fasting during Ramadan; alms giving; the pilgrimage to Mecca; and belief in one, unitary god – are at the core of both faiths, and most mainstream clerics in each denomination recognize adherents of the other side as "legitimate" Muslims.
The Koran is the sacred text for both. They believe Muhammad was the prophet and that there will be a resurrection followed by a final judgment when the world ends, recent events in Iraq and Lebanon have shown, the differences between the believers are not only seen as important by the communities but now, as they have for centuries, rest at the core of bloody political struggles.
While religious differences are real and remain important, the breakdown over Shia and Sunni in Iraq is about group identity as much as it is about disagreements over proper worship.
In Iraq, many Sunnis and Shiites who are not particularly devout are participating in the bloodshed, fighting to advance group interests.
"I think that Sunni and Shia group identifiers have become more important in a lot of ways that are not essentially religious,'' says Barbara Petzen, an expert at Harvard University's Middle Eastern Studies Centre.
Though a majority in Iran and Iraq, Shiites make up just 15 percent of the world's Muslims. Their history of defeat and frequent subjugation has also led to a cult of death and martyrdom within Shia’s.
Such expressions of piety are looked at with disgust by hard-line Sunnis like the clergy in Saudi Arabia, who view the veneration of Hussein and other members of the prophet's family as a violation of monotheism. This view has frequently led extremist groups like Al Qaeda to attack Shia's as heretics.
(Murphy, D: 2009)
Sunni and Shia’s have engaged in this ongoing war of beliefs for a number of years now. It seems that there is no real reason to this other than the dis-like of alternative beliefs within the Muslim religion.
This is a clear examples of how one’s dissimilarity of beliefs can lead to an underlining detestation of another society can cause bloodshed.
I was told only a few days ago of a Sikh boy living in my home town was attacked by a Muslim gang. They began sawing this man into pieces. Everyone claimed to have heard screaming however no body thought to go to look or help. This murder was due to a racial attack within the Sikh-Muslim divide. This divide has been known to have gone of for many years since 1947, when the British separated India and Pakistan.
Ever since the partition of the sub-continent in 1947, when Britain dismantled its Indian empire, India and Pakistan have been arch rivals.
The animosity has its roots in religion and history, and is epitomised by the long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir. This has recently escalated into a dangerous nuclear arms race.
This boy a young man from India who‘d come over to study, was horrifically tortured. At hearing sirens of a police car which hadn’t been for them they panicked and cut his head off.
At hearing this news I felt stunned and mentally shook. The idea of such a traumatic death, the horrors of it seeping in my mind. I was frozen. Immediately the people whom I was with began a discussion which soon turned into a outpour of intolerance.
The cultural and religious segregation of India and Pakistan goes back centuries, however one would think in the countries. Today’s Asian-British society is not there so why do they still carry this injustice on?
It was apparent that the more these racial attacks occur the more retaliation and hate is created. It is a vicious cycle. The reason society is not able to move forward is due to the underlining fact we can not let go of our ancestral past’s.
References:
1. Innovative Minds (2004) Innovative Minds: Protest French Hijab Ban [online] available from: http://www.inminds.co.uk/french-hijab-ban.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
2. Murphy, D (2009) Islam’s Sunni-Shia split [online] available from: http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0117/p25s01-wome.html%202009 [accessed] 10.04.2009]
3.Baroud, R (2007) Racism and War [online] available from: http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=6846 [accessed:10.04.2009]
4. BBC News UK War (2001) veteran in racist attack [online] available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1294021.stm [accessed:10.04.2009]
5. Nirmala, G (2009) Indian Caste System Discriminates [online] available from: http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/georgesept62001.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
6. Davila, F (2004) Typical Muslim families with Jobs and Now Bear Burden of Suspicion [online] The Seattle Times available from: http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/news/nation-world/sept11anniversary/oneyearlater/suspicion.html [accessed: 10.04.2009]
7. Dhami, S.S (2008) Restoring The Pride [online] Dashmesh Pictures available from: http://www.restoringthepride.com/mission.html [accessed:10.04.2009]
8. Kubler, G.A (No date) Tensions of Stereotypes as Politics Jasdev Singh Rai [online] http://www.cultuurwetenschap.be/conferences/ASIA-LINK/downloads/Tensions%20of%20Stereotypes%20-%20Jasdev%20Singh%20Rai.ppt. [accessed: 10.04.2009]
Native American Religion, Culture, and Rituals.
".....the North American public remains ignorant about
Native American religions.
And this, despite the fact that hundreds of books and
articles have been published by anthropologists,
religionists and others about native beliefs......
Little of this scholarly literature has found its
way into popular books about Native American religion..." (Native American Spirituality:2005)
“For some Americans Indians involved in Native American religions, life unfolds as a rich drama. This drama plays out in a world filled with Spiritual forces and shaped by them everything can mean something. Little is separate from religious influence. Spiritually attuned Native American men and woman seek multiple ways to express their religious visions. Their spiritually can affect how they cook, eat, dance, paint, tell stories, mold pottery, dye clothes, decorate you their bodies, design their homes, organize their villages , court lovers, marry, bury, dress, speak, make love, cut their hair, and so on. Wisdom comes by paying attention to the living world, discerning its significance with others in a community. For people holding this perspective, everyday realities can carry extraordinary significance. Dreams may matter. Mountains can harbour gods. Even practical activities can carry religious meaning. Agriculture can be sacred; hunting holy.” (Martin J. W:1999)
A Native Americans life is centered on their spirituality and beliefs system. This way of living by one’s customs is apparent within a Native’s day-to-day living. Through living by the foundations set in one’s beliefs can be seen in many religions the world. The Muslim religion have rituals set out to attend daily routines, such as eating, bathing, sexual intercourse and other personal activities down to what foot to enter one’s home with. It is not only the Muslim religion, but many Eastern cultures have rituals and customs based upon their religion or many times culture which are apparent to daily life. All Eastern societies vary on food, marriage, burials or cremation, language, dress, worship and beliefs. Most religions give special reference to some animals and even use these as part of their rituals. Hunting is holy within the Native American belief. Some religions, such as Islam, which sacrifices all meat to make it halal ‘clean’ before eaten. This ritual is very special at the time of Eid, when usually a Goat is sacrificed. Along with many religions being placed under attack, the Native Americans have also been exposed to prejudice against their culture and people. During the battle at Wounded Knee a massacre took place with the near wiping out of the complete Sioux tribe. The Sioux began a ritual called the Ghost Dance in order to help fight the American federal department. However the US retaliated with ammunition and bullets, which led to the death of a famous Chief as well as a large amount of woman and children. This massacre took place due to a belief system which was unknown to the Europeans.
“The history of American religions is dominated by the presence of Christianity brought to the New World by European settlers. Columbus's discovery in 1492 marked the beginning of a massive "white" invasion that would consume the entire continent of North America over the next four centuries. Although Christianity manifested itself in countless denominations, it was, nevertheless, the umbrella under which most Europeans in America gathered. It served as common ground on which white settlers could stand together in the struggle for survival in the wilderness of the New World. Whatever differences there were between denominations were insignificant when compared to the differences between the white European Christianity and their counterparts on the continent, the resident Native Americans. This fact, along with the desire and need for land, turned Native Americans into a convenient enemy for most groups of European settlers.” (R, David: Unknown)
Christianity having been the prime belief and with so many followers, this could only then be perceived as the true religion. If Christianity then represented God anything different from this would surely only be seen as the devil?
The arrival of Europeans marked a major change in Native society. Millions died due to sickness, and programs of slavery and extermination. 1 Europeans and their missionaries looked upon Native Spirituality as worthless superstition inspired by the Christian devil, Satan. Many of the survivors were forcibly converted to Christianity. The U.S. and Canadian governments instituted policies to force Natives onto reservations and to encourage them to become assimilated into the majority culture. 2 During the middle decades of the 20th century, whole generations of children were kidnapped, forcibly confined in residential schools, and abused physically, sexually and emotionally. In Canada, these schools were operated on behalf of the Federal Government by the Roman Catholic, Anglican, United and Presbyterian churches. Both the government and these religious institutions have settled a multi-billion dollar class-action lawsuit. Claims against the Anglican Church were much greater than the Church's current assets. The was a concern for a while that the church might be forced into bankruptcy due to legal costs. (ReligiousIntolerence:2008)
Native spirituality was suppressed by the U.S. and Canadian governments. Spiritual leaders ran the risk of jail sentences of up to 30 years for simply practicing their rituals. This came to an end in the U.S. in 1978 when the Freedom of Religion Act was passed.
“Some sociologists believe that the extremely high suicide rate among Natives is due to the destruction of their religion and culture by the Federal Governments. This suppression is still seen in the prison administrations; Canadian prisons have only recently allowed Native sweat lodge ceremonies; many American prisons routinely deny permission.” (ReligiousIntolerence:2008)
“Europeans and their missionaries looked upon Native Spirituality as worthless superstition inspired by the Christian devil, Satan. Many of the survivors were forcibly converted to Christianity.” (Native American Spiriuality:2005)
The fear of the unknown beating within the hearts of the European settlers and convinced they were evil drove these men to do what most would when having felt threatened and in dangered. With religion such a big part of a European life anything related to the devil would then have to be wiped out without a momentary thought or sense of guilt as they were doing the right thing.
In essence, time had run out for the indigenous race that populated the continent of North America. Like the Israelites of the sixth century B.C.E., Native Americans were faced with an enemy that was more advanced. Ironically, the invading whites are the religious descendants of those same Israelites who were conquered by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E.. Armed with technologically advanced weapons, diseases which were foreign to the continent, and a concept known as Manifest Destiny, European settlers began an assault on the North American Continent the result of which was nothing short of genocide. Within four hundred years of their first contact, the white man had succeeded in stripping Native American civilizations of virtually all of their land and had nearly wiped their cultures from the face of the earth. (R, David: Unknown)
Popular American history has traditionally viewed the past through white eyes. Much of the history and culture of many Native American civilizations were lost during the European invasion of the continent. The absence of a written language among most tribes force them to depend on aril traditions that were difficult to maintain as their civilizations were being killed off and separated by the dominant white culture. (R, David: Unknown)
Native Americans believe nature is divine; they are only a part of nature, and not here to dominate it. Their ceremonies are for the regeneration of Mother Earth, a direct contrast to western beliefs and policies. What knowledge Native Americans have to offer is therefore disregarded or silenced through government segregation and control. In fact, Native American ceremonies were prohibited by law before the passage of the Indian Freedom Act in 1978. In addition, many Americanized Indians have long forgotten the traditions of their past, and the few who still remember tend to be secretive about their customs, which they have been forced to hide so long from the dominant culture. (Native American Healing:2005)
The US and Canadian governments instituted policies to force Natives onto reservations and to encourage them to become assimilated into the majority culture. Some sociologists believe that the extremely high suicide rate among Natives is due to the suppression of their religion and culture by the Federal Governments. This suppression is still seen in the prison administrations; Canadian prisons have only recently allowed Native sweat lodge ceremonies; most American prisons routinely deny permission. (Native American Spirituality:2005)
Native Americans continued to care about the sacred sites associated with their ancestral dead, the holy places where they emerged form the earth, the spirits of bears, deer, rivers, crystals, snakes, tobacco, and corn.
With the invasion of European settlers the Native American land and culture slowly became deceased. Within four hundred years of their first contact, the white man had succeeded in stripping Native American civilizations of virtually all of their land and had nearly wiped their cultures from the face of the earth.
Most Natives turned a blind eye to the dominance of Christian beliefs.
”During the 1820’s they opposed policies and programs that would rip them from their ancestral homelands. But they avoided stances that seemed too militant or might provoke the United States.” (Martin J. W:1999)
Many did however convert to Christianity, due to scale of Christians and dominance of its beliefs.
“For the first time, however, some of them became actively involved in the religion of the communists. Dominated by the United States, surrounded by Europeans and Africans, and infiltrated by missionaries, a significant number of American Indians began converting to Christianity…they began praying to Christ, reading the Bible, and going to Christian churches. For better or worse, they helped write a new chapter in the religious history of their people.” (Martin J. W:1999)
The European culture and Beliefs of Christianity did not affect everyone.
“Other Native peoples were abused by Christians from England. In colonial New England, for example, Puritan ministers labelled the Pequot Indians ’Ungodly’ and demanded that Christian soldiers destroy them. A massacre of Pequot men, woman and children took place in 1637. A generation later, the Puritan minister John Eliot established segregated communities of Native converts. Most of the converts were Massachusetts, lured y the promise of peace, gave up control over their lives.”(Martin J. W:1999).
This prejudice and racism towards the Natives American beliefs created hatred and barrier for the older generation. The younger generation exposed to Christian beliefs and brought up in a European society reflected on them. Christianity with Native American culture was being seen as positive within Native people. (Quote Bottom 0f Pg64) In the Bible God did not discriminate anyone, and everyone is viewed as Equal regardless of gender, status, culture or race. This can be seen in the Sikh religion where Equality between all man kind is employed. The Guri tells the Sikh people ‘Ek On Kaar’ there is ‘Only One God.’ For this reason the caste system is not allowed due to the fact is places people in social status depending on ancestral occupation and sets barriers amongst people.
The life of the Native American people, such s Massachusetts people began to reflect the power of the European and their culture began to change to the English way.
“The social structure, rules, clothing, manners, architecture, economic activities, and calendar were English, not Massachusetts… The intent was to make over the Native Americans was a very negative one. Telling Massachusetts people that they had to change every aspect of their life in order to be accepted by God was like telling them their way of life was worthless, if not evil. And telling them they had to become like the English in order to e saved was racist. Damned if they resembled their ancestors too much but never able to resemble their English enough, New England converts found themselves trapped in a game they could not win. Without necessarily intending it, the “Praying towns” created by Eliot expressed white arrogance and injected self-hatred into the hearts of Massachusetts boys and girls.” (Martin J. W:1999)
Apess a man born in1798, was an orphan disconnected from the Native people, but defended the rights of the Native people:
“Apess noted that Jesus was not a Caucasian but a person of color, closer in appearance to Indians than to Europeans. Apess suggested that a dark-skinned Jesus would be rejected by prejudiced white New Englanders. For American Indians like Apess, the Methodist variety of Christianity seemed to support the cause of the oppressed. Like many African-Americans, Native peoples found within this kind of Christianity a divine affirmation of their value as human beings.” (Martin J. W:1999)
However those that did oppose Christianity understandably felt anger towards the European people. They invaded their home lands, killed a vast amount of their community and now they were telling the Natives their religion was ‘ungodly’?
“Some Native American critics of Christianity also mistrust the Bible, the ancient text held sacred by Christians. They find fault with the Christian story of cosmic creation recorded in Genesis. Why? That story includes the statement: “Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the rids of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth.” According to some of the critics, this statement (RSV, Genesis 1:26) places human beings over nature and justifies exploitation of the earth and other living things. Influenced by this text, they say, Christians have behaved in an irresponsible, reckless, and destructive way toward nature and toward peoples involved in earth-based religions” (Martin J. W:1999).
For this reason Christianity was also linked to the idea of European civilisation which had now along with the Bible was negatively perceived by the Native people as it promoted a divide between man and nature, which for the Native Americans see as a oneness in life. The Bible however see’s nature and other living creatures as below man kind, a dominator of the Earth.
The Native Church of North America is mainly inspired by the belief and importance of Peyote.
The peyote religion came about 10,000years old.
The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes. (NativeAmericanSpirituality:2005)
Veneration of the small spineless cactus called peyote probably began immediately after the first hunter-gatherers discovered its remarkable effects. The Native American deification of the plant is estimated to be about 10,000 years old. Peyote cactus buttons uncovered in Shumla Cave in southern Texas have been radiocarbon dated to 5,000 B.C. (Fikes, J:1996)
The Huichol Indians of northwestern Mexico still use peyote sacramentally. Their peyote pilgrimage may have been in place by 200 A.D. Scholars consider it the oldest sacramental use of peyote in North America.(Fikes, J:1996)
Huichols revere Peyote as the heart, soul, and memory of their Creator, Deer-Person. Huichol healers and singers achieve such union with their Creator, as incarnated in Peyote, that Peyote speaks through them, as here:
If you come to know me intimately, you shall be like me and feel like I do. Although you may not see me, I shall always be your elder brother. I am called the flower of Deer-Person. Have no fear, for I shall always be the flower of God.
Huichol religion parallels Christianity in that the Creator, out of compassion for his people, subjects himself to the limitations of this world. In Christianity he incarnates himself as a man who dies but is resurrected to save human beings; in Huichol belief he dies and is reborn in the Peyote plant to give his people wisdom. The Aztec are the cultural cousins of the Huichol, and their word peyote or peyote denotes the pericardium, the envelope or covering of the heart. This corresponds strictly to the Huichol belief that Peyote embodies the Creator's heart. (Fikes, J:1996)
Perhaps because it provided a powerful alternative to both ancient tribal religions and missionary-controlled versions of Christianity, the Peyote religion spread like wildfire. In the 1880s, two new religious movements were popular among Native Americans. One, the Ghost Dance, tried to renew the old ways. Following the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, the Ghost Dance practically disappeared. The other, the Peyote religion, allowed members to establish a new identity which combined aboriginal and Christian elements. Except for the secular pow-wow, Peyote meetings are now the most popular Native American gatherings. (Fikes, J:1996)
The Church has no professional, paid clergy. Members are free to interpret Bible passages according to their own understanding. Morality is basically Christian and stresses the need to abstain from alcohol and be faithful to one's spouse. Other prominent values include truthfulness, fulfilling one's family obligations, economic self-sufficiency, praying for the sick, and praying for peace.(Fikes, J:1996)
Religion Today
Natives today follow many spiritual traditions:
Many Native families today have been devout Christians for generations.
Others, particularly in the Southwest have retained their aboriginal traditions more or less intact.
Most follow a personal faith that combines traditional and Christian elements.
Pan Indianism is a recent and growing movement which encourages a return to traditional beliefs, and seeks to create a common Native religion.
The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes.
(Religious Intolerence:2008)
Natives today follow many spiritual traditions: Many Native families today have been devout Christians for generations. Others, particularly in the Southwest have retained their aboriginal traditions more or less intact. Most follow a personal faith that combines traditional and Christian elements.
Pan Indianism is a recent and growing movement which encourages a return to traditional beliefs, and seeks to create a common Native religion. The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes. (Native American Spirituality:2005)
Native American
1. Martin, J.W (2001) The land lokks after us: A History of Native American Religion. Oxford University Press.
2. American Indian Spirituality (1999 - 2005) American Indian Spirituality and Sacred Rites
[online] PurpleHawk Available from: http://impurplehawk.com/naspirit.html [accessed: 25.03.2009]
3. Null, G (1996) Native American Healing [online] available from:
http://www.garynull.com/documents/nativeamerican.htm [accessed: 25.03.2009]
4. Falsetto, S (2008) Native American After Life Rituals [online] available from:http://ethnobotany.suite101.com/article.cfm/native_american_after_life_rituals#ixzz0AV97G4KT [accessed: 25.03.2009]
5. Sun Dance (No Date) Sun Dance [online] available from: http://www.crystalinks.com/sundance.html [accessed: 28.03.2009]
6. Native Americans - American Indians - The First People of America (2007) Native Americans - Buffalo[online] Native Americans.com
available from: http://www.nativeamericans.com/Buffalo.htm [accessed: 25.03.2009]
7. Fikes, F (1996)A Brief History of the Native American Church
[online] Huston Smith Used by the Council on Spiritual Practice available from: http://csp.org/communities/docs/fikes-nac_history.html [accessed: 28.03.2008]
8.D.Ruvolo (No Date) A summary of Native American Religion
[online] available from: http://are.as.wvu.edu/ruvolo.htm [accessed: 02.04.2008]
Native American religions.
And this, despite the fact that hundreds of books and
articles have been published by anthropologists,
religionists and others about native beliefs......
Little of this scholarly literature has found its
way into popular books about Native American religion..." (Native American Spirituality:2005)
“For some Americans Indians involved in Native American religions, life unfolds as a rich drama. This drama plays out in a world filled with Spiritual forces and shaped by them everything can mean something. Little is separate from religious influence. Spiritually attuned Native American men and woman seek multiple ways to express their religious visions. Their spiritually can affect how they cook, eat, dance, paint, tell stories, mold pottery, dye clothes, decorate you their bodies, design their homes, organize their villages , court lovers, marry, bury, dress, speak, make love, cut their hair, and so on. Wisdom comes by paying attention to the living world, discerning its significance with others in a community. For people holding this perspective, everyday realities can carry extraordinary significance. Dreams may matter. Mountains can harbour gods. Even practical activities can carry religious meaning. Agriculture can be sacred; hunting holy.” (Martin J. W:1999)
A Native Americans life is centered on their spirituality and beliefs system. This way of living by one’s customs is apparent within a Native’s day-to-day living. Through living by the foundations set in one’s beliefs can be seen in many religions the world. The Muslim religion have rituals set out to attend daily routines, such as eating, bathing, sexual intercourse and other personal activities down to what foot to enter one’s home with. It is not only the Muslim religion, but many Eastern cultures have rituals and customs based upon their religion or many times culture which are apparent to daily life. All Eastern societies vary on food, marriage, burials or cremation, language, dress, worship and beliefs. Most religions give special reference to some animals and even use these as part of their rituals. Hunting is holy within the Native American belief. Some religions, such as Islam, which sacrifices all meat to make it halal ‘clean’ before eaten. This ritual is very special at the time of Eid, when usually a Goat is sacrificed. Along with many religions being placed under attack, the Native Americans have also been exposed to prejudice against their culture and people. During the battle at Wounded Knee a massacre took place with the near wiping out of the complete Sioux tribe. The Sioux began a ritual called the Ghost Dance in order to help fight the American federal department. However the US retaliated with ammunition and bullets, which led to the death of a famous Chief as well as a large amount of woman and children. This massacre took place due to a belief system which was unknown to the Europeans.
“The history of American religions is dominated by the presence of Christianity brought to the New World by European settlers. Columbus's discovery in 1492 marked the beginning of a massive "white" invasion that would consume the entire continent of North America over the next four centuries. Although Christianity manifested itself in countless denominations, it was, nevertheless, the umbrella under which most Europeans in America gathered. It served as common ground on which white settlers could stand together in the struggle for survival in the wilderness of the New World. Whatever differences there were between denominations were insignificant when compared to the differences between the white European Christianity and their counterparts on the continent, the resident Native Americans. This fact, along with the desire and need for land, turned Native Americans into a convenient enemy for most groups of European settlers.” (R, David: Unknown)
Christianity having been the prime belief and with so many followers, this could only then be perceived as the true religion. If Christianity then represented God anything different from this would surely only be seen as the devil?
The arrival of Europeans marked a major change in Native society. Millions died due to sickness, and programs of slavery and extermination. 1 Europeans and their missionaries looked upon Native Spirituality as worthless superstition inspired by the Christian devil, Satan. Many of the survivors were forcibly converted to Christianity. The U.S. and Canadian governments instituted policies to force Natives onto reservations and to encourage them to become assimilated into the majority culture. 2 During the middle decades of the 20th century, whole generations of children were kidnapped, forcibly confined in residential schools, and abused physically, sexually and emotionally. In Canada, these schools were operated on behalf of the Federal Government by the Roman Catholic, Anglican, United and Presbyterian churches. Both the government and these religious institutions have settled a multi-billion dollar class-action lawsuit. Claims against the Anglican Church were much greater than the Church's current assets. The was a concern for a while that the church might be forced into bankruptcy due to legal costs. (ReligiousIntolerence:2008)
Native spirituality was suppressed by the U.S. and Canadian governments. Spiritual leaders ran the risk of jail sentences of up to 30 years for simply practicing their rituals. This came to an end in the U.S. in 1978 when the Freedom of Religion Act was passed.
“Some sociologists believe that the extremely high suicide rate among Natives is due to the destruction of their religion and culture by the Federal Governments. This suppression is still seen in the prison administrations; Canadian prisons have only recently allowed Native sweat lodge ceremonies; many American prisons routinely deny permission.” (ReligiousIntolerence:2008)
“Europeans and their missionaries looked upon Native Spirituality as worthless superstition inspired by the Christian devil, Satan. Many of the survivors were forcibly converted to Christianity.” (Native American Spiriuality:2005)
The fear of the unknown beating within the hearts of the European settlers and convinced they were evil drove these men to do what most would when having felt threatened and in dangered. With religion such a big part of a European life anything related to the devil would then have to be wiped out without a momentary thought or sense of guilt as they were doing the right thing.
In essence, time had run out for the indigenous race that populated the continent of North America. Like the Israelites of the sixth century B.C.E., Native Americans were faced with an enemy that was more advanced. Ironically, the invading whites are the religious descendants of those same Israelites who were conquered by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E.. Armed with technologically advanced weapons, diseases which were foreign to the continent, and a concept known as Manifest Destiny, European settlers began an assault on the North American Continent the result of which was nothing short of genocide. Within four hundred years of their first contact, the white man had succeeded in stripping Native American civilizations of virtually all of their land and had nearly wiped their cultures from the face of the earth. (R, David: Unknown)
Popular American history has traditionally viewed the past through white eyes. Much of the history and culture of many Native American civilizations were lost during the European invasion of the continent. The absence of a written language among most tribes force them to depend on aril traditions that were difficult to maintain as their civilizations were being killed off and separated by the dominant white culture. (R, David: Unknown)
Native Americans believe nature is divine; they are only a part of nature, and not here to dominate it. Their ceremonies are for the regeneration of Mother Earth, a direct contrast to western beliefs and policies. What knowledge Native Americans have to offer is therefore disregarded or silenced through government segregation and control. In fact, Native American ceremonies were prohibited by law before the passage of the Indian Freedom Act in 1978. In addition, many Americanized Indians have long forgotten the traditions of their past, and the few who still remember tend to be secretive about their customs, which they have been forced to hide so long from the dominant culture. (Native American Healing:2005)
The US and Canadian governments instituted policies to force Natives onto reservations and to encourage them to become assimilated into the majority culture. Some sociologists believe that the extremely high suicide rate among Natives is due to the suppression of their religion and culture by the Federal Governments. This suppression is still seen in the prison administrations; Canadian prisons have only recently allowed Native sweat lodge ceremonies; most American prisons routinely deny permission. (Native American Spirituality:2005)
Native Americans continued to care about the sacred sites associated with their ancestral dead, the holy places where they emerged form the earth, the spirits of bears, deer, rivers, crystals, snakes, tobacco, and corn.
With the invasion of European settlers the Native American land and culture slowly became deceased. Within four hundred years of their first contact, the white man had succeeded in stripping Native American civilizations of virtually all of their land and had nearly wiped their cultures from the face of the earth.
Most Natives turned a blind eye to the dominance of Christian beliefs.
”During the 1820’s they opposed policies and programs that would rip them from their ancestral homelands. But they avoided stances that seemed too militant or might provoke the United States.” (Martin J. W:1999)
Many did however convert to Christianity, due to scale of Christians and dominance of its beliefs.
“For the first time, however, some of them became actively involved in the religion of the communists. Dominated by the United States, surrounded by Europeans and Africans, and infiltrated by missionaries, a significant number of American Indians began converting to Christianity…they began praying to Christ, reading the Bible, and going to Christian churches. For better or worse, they helped write a new chapter in the religious history of their people.” (Martin J. W:1999)
The European culture and Beliefs of Christianity did not affect everyone.
“Other Native peoples were abused by Christians from England. In colonial New England, for example, Puritan ministers labelled the Pequot Indians ’Ungodly’ and demanded that Christian soldiers destroy them. A massacre of Pequot men, woman and children took place in 1637. A generation later, the Puritan minister John Eliot established segregated communities of Native converts. Most of the converts were Massachusetts, lured y the promise of peace, gave up control over their lives.”(Martin J. W:1999).
This prejudice and racism towards the Natives American beliefs created hatred and barrier for the older generation. The younger generation exposed to Christian beliefs and brought up in a European society reflected on them. Christianity with Native American culture was being seen as positive within Native people. (Quote Bottom 0f Pg64) In the Bible God did not discriminate anyone, and everyone is viewed as Equal regardless of gender, status, culture or race. This can be seen in the Sikh religion where Equality between all man kind is employed. The Guri tells the Sikh people ‘Ek On Kaar’ there is ‘Only One God.’ For this reason the caste system is not allowed due to the fact is places people in social status depending on ancestral occupation and sets barriers amongst people.
The life of the Native American people, such s Massachusetts people began to reflect the power of the European and their culture began to change to the English way.
“The social structure, rules, clothing, manners, architecture, economic activities, and calendar were English, not Massachusetts… The intent was to make over the Native Americans was a very negative one. Telling Massachusetts people that they had to change every aspect of their life in order to be accepted by God was like telling them their way of life was worthless, if not evil. And telling them they had to become like the English in order to e saved was racist. Damned if they resembled their ancestors too much but never able to resemble their English enough, New England converts found themselves trapped in a game they could not win. Without necessarily intending it, the “Praying towns” created by Eliot expressed white arrogance and injected self-hatred into the hearts of Massachusetts boys and girls.” (Martin J. W:1999)
Apess a man born in1798, was an orphan disconnected from the Native people, but defended the rights of the Native people:
“Apess noted that Jesus was not a Caucasian but a person of color, closer in appearance to Indians than to Europeans. Apess suggested that a dark-skinned Jesus would be rejected by prejudiced white New Englanders. For American Indians like Apess, the Methodist variety of Christianity seemed to support the cause of the oppressed. Like many African-Americans, Native peoples found within this kind of Christianity a divine affirmation of their value as human beings.” (Martin J. W:1999)
However those that did oppose Christianity understandably felt anger towards the European people. They invaded their home lands, killed a vast amount of their community and now they were telling the Natives their religion was ‘ungodly’?
“Some Native American critics of Christianity also mistrust the Bible, the ancient text held sacred by Christians. They find fault with the Christian story of cosmic creation recorded in Genesis. Why? That story includes the statement: “Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the rids of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth.” According to some of the critics, this statement (RSV, Genesis 1:26) places human beings over nature and justifies exploitation of the earth and other living things. Influenced by this text, they say, Christians have behaved in an irresponsible, reckless, and destructive way toward nature and toward peoples involved in earth-based religions” (Martin J. W:1999).
For this reason Christianity was also linked to the idea of European civilisation which had now along with the Bible was negatively perceived by the Native people as it promoted a divide between man and nature, which for the Native Americans see as a oneness in life. The Bible however see’s nature and other living creatures as below man kind, a dominator of the Earth.
The Native Church of North America is mainly inspired by the belief and importance of Peyote.
The peyote religion came about 10,000years old.
The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes. (NativeAmericanSpirituality:2005)
Veneration of the small spineless cactus called peyote probably began immediately after the first hunter-gatherers discovered its remarkable effects. The Native American deification of the plant is estimated to be about 10,000 years old. Peyote cactus buttons uncovered in Shumla Cave in southern Texas have been radiocarbon dated to 5,000 B.C. (Fikes, J:1996)
The Huichol Indians of northwestern Mexico still use peyote sacramentally. Their peyote pilgrimage may have been in place by 200 A.D. Scholars consider it the oldest sacramental use of peyote in North America.(Fikes, J:1996)
Huichols revere Peyote as the heart, soul, and memory of their Creator, Deer-Person. Huichol healers and singers achieve such union with their Creator, as incarnated in Peyote, that Peyote speaks through them, as here:
If you come to know me intimately, you shall be like me and feel like I do. Although you may not see me, I shall always be your elder brother. I am called the flower of Deer-Person. Have no fear, for I shall always be the flower of God.
Huichol religion parallels Christianity in that the Creator, out of compassion for his people, subjects himself to the limitations of this world. In Christianity he incarnates himself as a man who dies but is resurrected to save human beings; in Huichol belief he dies and is reborn in the Peyote plant to give his people wisdom. The Aztec are the cultural cousins of the Huichol, and their word peyote or peyote denotes the pericardium, the envelope or covering of the heart. This corresponds strictly to the Huichol belief that Peyote embodies the Creator's heart. (Fikes, J:1996)
Perhaps because it provided a powerful alternative to both ancient tribal religions and missionary-controlled versions of Christianity, the Peyote religion spread like wildfire. In the 1880s, two new religious movements were popular among Native Americans. One, the Ghost Dance, tried to renew the old ways. Following the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, the Ghost Dance practically disappeared. The other, the Peyote religion, allowed members to establish a new identity which combined aboriginal and Christian elements. Except for the secular pow-wow, Peyote meetings are now the most popular Native American gatherings. (Fikes, J:1996)
The Church has no professional, paid clergy. Members are free to interpret Bible passages according to their own understanding. Morality is basically Christian and stresses the need to abstain from alcohol and be faithful to one's spouse. Other prominent values include truthfulness, fulfilling one's family obligations, economic self-sufficiency, praying for the sick, and praying for peace.(Fikes, J:1996)
Religion Today
Natives today follow many spiritual traditions:
Many Native families today have been devout Christians for generations.
Others, particularly in the Southwest have retained their aboriginal traditions more or less intact.
Most follow a personal faith that combines traditional and Christian elements.
Pan Indianism is a recent and growing movement which encourages a return to traditional beliefs, and seeks to create a common Native religion.
The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes.
(Religious Intolerence:2008)
Natives today follow many spiritual traditions: Many Native families today have been devout Christians for generations. Others, particularly in the Southwest have retained their aboriginal traditions more or less intact. Most follow a personal faith that combines traditional and Christian elements.
Pan Indianism is a recent and growing movement which encourages a return to traditional beliefs, and seeks to create a common Native religion. The Native American Church is a continuation of the ancient Peyote Religion which had used a cactus with psychedelic properties called peyote for about 10,000 years. Incorporated in 1918, its original aim was to promote Christian beliefs and values, and to use the peyote sacrament. Although use of peyote is restricted to religious ritual which is protected by the US Constitution, and it is not harmful or habit forming, and has a multi-millennia tradition, there has been considerable opposition from Christian groups, from governments, and from within some tribes. (Native American Spirituality:2005)
Native American
1. Martin, J.W (2001) The land lokks after us: A History of Native American Religion. Oxford University Press.
2. American Indian Spirituality (1999 - 2005) American Indian Spirituality and Sacred Rites
[online] PurpleHawk Available from: http://impurplehawk.com/naspirit.html [accessed: 25.03.2009]
3. Null, G (1996) Native American Healing [online] available from:
http://www.garynull.com/documents/nativeamerican.htm [accessed: 25.03.2009]
4. Falsetto, S (2008) Native American After Life Rituals [online] available from:http://ethnobotany.suite101.com/article.cfm/native_american_after_life_rituals#ixzz0AV97G4KT [accessed: 25.03.2009]
5. Sun Dance (No Date) Sun Dance [online] available from: http://www.crystalinks.com/sundance.html [accessed: 28.03.2009]
6. Native Americans - American Indians - The First People of America (2007) Native Americans - Buffalo[online] Native Americans.com
available from: http://www.nativeamericans.com/Buffalo.htm [accessed: 25.03.2009]
7. Fikes, F (1996)A Brief History of the Native American Church
[online] Huston Smith Used by the Council on Spiritual Practice available from: http://csp.org/communities/docs/fikes-nac_history.html [accessed: 28.03.2008]
8.D.Ruvolo (No Date) A summary of Native American Religion
[online] available from: http://are.as.wvu.edu/ruvolo.htm [accessed: 02.04.2008]
Bhagat Singh : A man who fought for social justice, a government who sentenced him to death.
Contributions
Bhagat Singh
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Biography
Born: September 27, 190
Died: March 23, 1931
Gave a new direction to revolutionary movement in India, formed 'Naujavan Bharat Sabha' to spread the message of revolution in Punjab, formed 'Hindustan Samajvadi Prajatantra Sangha' along with Chandrasekhar Azad to establish a republic in India, assassinated police official Saunders to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, dropped bomb in Central Legislative Assembly along with Batukeshwar Dutt.
Bhagat Singh was among the prominent revolutionaries who shaped the base of a grand national movement. Following his execution, on March 23, 1931, the supporters and followers of Bhagat Singh regarded him as a "Shaheed", "martyr"
(Cultural India, Bhagat Singh: No date)
Bhagat Singh was one of the most prominent faces of Indian freedom struggle. He was a revolutionary ahead of his times. By Revolution he meant that the present order of things, which is based on manifest injustice must change.
Bhagat Singh studied the European revolutionary movement and was greatly attracted towards socialism. He realised that the overthrow of British rule should be accompanied by the socialist reconstruction of Indian society and for this political power must be seized by the workers.
(Shaheed Bhagat Singh: No date)
Bhagat Singh stood up to the British Government and made a stand for India to be an independant state.
Shaheed Bhagat Singh though portrayed as a terrorist by the British, Sardar Bhagat Singh was critical of the individual terrorism which was prevalent among the revolutionary youth of his time and called for mass mobilization. (Shaheed Bhagate Singh: No date)
historian Dr. Irfan Habib spoke on the relevance of Bhagat Singh in the present times:
Although termed as a terrorist by the then British Empire, Bhagat Singh rightly wanted to be called a revolutionary and a soldier in the war against imperialism. He believed that his retaliation against oppression could not be termed as anarchy. His ideas reflect his deep understanding of the Indian milieu and his thought provoking writings make him a class apart from his contemporaries. Though he died at the young age of 24 years, he had a clear vision of an India which was not only politically free, but also free from poverty and social injustices. In one of his speeches, less than 2 months before his death, he stressed the need for a Socialist Revolution, through a political revolution. (Shobha Shukla: 2009)
In fighting for his rights Bhagat Singh was classed a terrorist. Therefore creating the ideaology that he was a criminal and posed threat. By labbelling him a terrorist, the government gained the authority to justify him being wanting under police authority. Is it not possible to seek justice and prevail against the so-called government and fight for freedom with no right?
Surely does man not have a right to free will?
Bhagat Singh gave a new direction to the revolutionary movement in India. He differed from his predecessors on two counts. Firstly, he accepted the logic of atheism and publicly proclaimed it.
It can be argued Baghat Singh may have done this to end mankind from killing due to religious differences? Does not all war begin on the basis of cultural and religious differences? Is this not what Bhagat Singh wanted to put an end to as well as the British rule?
Their immediate goal was destruction of the British Empire and they had no inclination to work out a political alternative.
Bhagat Singh, because of his interest in studying and his keen sense of history gave revolutionary movement a goal beyond the elimination of the British. A clarity of vision and determination of purpose distinguished Bhagat Singh from other leaders of the National Movement. He emerged as the only alternative to Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, especially for the youth. (Shaheed Bhagat Singh: No date)
How is it today we praise this man for doing what he did and having the courage to stand against the enemy. However then he was punished for the exact same deed, under the British Empire.
Bhagat Singh was born in a Sikh family in village Banga in Layalpur district of Punjab (now in Pakistan). He was the third son of Sardar Kishan Singh and Vidyavati. Bhagat Singh's family was actively involved in freedom struggle. His father Kishan Singh and uncle Ajit Singh were members of Ghadr Party founded in the U.S to oust British rule from India. Family atmosphere had a great effect on the mind of young Bhagat Singh and patriotism flowed in his veins from childhood.
While studying at the local D.A.V. School in Lahore, in 1916, young Bhagat Singh came into contact with some well-known political leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ras Bihari Bose. Punjab was politically very charged in those days. In 1919, when Jalianwala Bagh massacre took place, Bhagat Singh was only 12 years old. The massacre deeply disturbed him. On the next day of massacre Bhagat Singh went to Jalianwala Bagh and collected soil from the spot and kept it as a memento for the rest of his life. The massacre strengthened his resolve to drive British out from India. (Shaheed Bhagat Singh: No date)
The young Bhagat Singh disturbed by what was happening in his country went out to seek justice. By creating a war does the government and leaders not make the young generation into activists.
Today we see what is happening with suicide bombers, who we claim are being brainwashed by others and used as targets against our government. However if we look back into history we will see this young generation has watched death and destruction from such an early age it would only be their nature to go out and fight.
In response to Mahatma Gandhi's call for non-cooperation against British rule in 1921, Bhagat Singh left his school and actively participated in the movement. In 1922, when Mahatma Gandhi suspended Non-cooperation movement against violence at Chauri-chaura in Gorakhpur, Bhagat was greatly disappointed. His faith in non violence weakened and he came to the conclusion that armed revolution was the only practical way of winning freedom.
(Shaheed Bhagat Singh: No date)
To continue his studies, Bhagat Singh joined the National College in Lahore, founded by Lala Lajpat Rai. At this college, which was a centre of revolutionary activities, he came into contact with revolutionaries such as Bhagwati Charan, Sukhdev and others.
These became Bhagat Singh's close friends whom he worked alongside.
To avoid early marriage, Bhagat Singh ran away from home and went to Kanpur. Here, he came into contact with a revolutionary named Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, and learnt his first lessons as revolutionary. On hearing that his grandmother was ill, Bhagat Singh returned home. He continued his revolutionary activities from his village. He went to Lahore and formed a union of revolutionaries by name 'Naujavan Bharat Sabha'. He started spreading the message of revolution in Punjab. In 1928 he attended a meeting of revolutionaries in Delhi and came into contact with Chandrasekhar Azad. The two formed 'Hindustan Samajvadi Prajatantra Sangha'. Its aim was to establish a republic in India by means of an armed revolution.(iloveindia:)
In February 1928, a committee from England,Shaheed Bhagat Singh called Simon Commission visited India. The purpose of its visit was to decide how much freedom and responsibility could be given to the people of India. But there was no Indian on the committee.(iloveindia:)
This angered Indians and they decided to boycott Simon Commission. While protesting against Simon Commission in Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally killed... Bhagat Singh was determined to avenge Lajpat Rai's death by shooting the British official responsible for the killing, Deputy Inspector General Scott. He shot down Assistant Superintendent Saunders instead, mistaking him for Scott. Bhagat Singh had to flee from Lahore to escape death punishment. (iloveindia:)
Instead of finding the root cause of discontent of Indians, the British government took to more repressive measures.
Under the Defense of India Act, it gave more power to the police to arrest persons to stop processions with suspicious movements and actions. The Act brought in the Central Legislative Assembly was defeated by one vote. Even then it was to be passed in the form of an ordinance in the "interest of the public." Bhagat Singh who was in hiding all this while, volunteered to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly where the meeting to pass the ordinance was being held. It was a carefully laid out plot, not to cause death or injury but to draw the attention of the government, that the modes of its suppression could no more be tolerated. It was decided that Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt would court arrest after throwing the bomb.
(Shaheed Bhagat Singh: No date)
On April 8, 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Assembly Hall while the Assembly was in session. The bombs did not hurt anyone. After throwing the bombs, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt, deliberately courted arrest by refusing to run away from the scene. During his trial, Bhagat Singh refused to employ any defence counsel. In jail, he went on hunger strike to protest the inhuman treatment of fellow-political prisoners by jail authorities. On October 7, 1930 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Raj Guru were awarded death sentence by a special tribunal. Despite great popular pressure and numerous appeals by political leaders of India, Bhagat Singh and his associates were hanged in the early hours of March 23, 1931.
It has come to conclusion that anyone seeking freedom or wanting to occomplish any form of justice will therefore be punished, and treated unfairly. The fact that their was not one political leader from India -automatically makes the argument unfair. Bhagat Singh was a man who wanted to reveal the injustice of the society, and in doing so deemed punishment of death.
Trial and Death
The British authority, while interrogating them, came to know about their involvement in the murder of J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were charged with the murder. Singh admitted to the murder and made statements against the British rule during the trial.
While in jail, Bhagat Singh found that the authorities were following a dual policy in treating the prisoners. The criminals of foreign origin were treated better than Indian political prisoners. As a protest, he along with some fellow prisoners declared to "go on hunger strike". The strike continued for over a month and finally the British had to accept before their conditions.
Bhagat Singh along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder of Saunders. On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev. Singh was cremated at Hussainiwala on banks of Sutlej river.
Bhagat Singh died because he wanted to stand up for his country and right. Today we praise this man for helping towards gaining their country India.
Dr. Habib lauded the scientific temperament of Bhagat Singh, which is very relevant in today's scenario:
More than any other nationalist of his times, Bhagat Singh stressed the importance of being rational. He believed in ideological firmness and said, 'Religion has no connection with the National Movement.' Bold sentiments indeed, but very true. It is distressing to see that today Nationalism is being touted in the garb of religion and caste. This has resulted in fragmentation of society and in communal riots. Instead of insisting on religious instructions to our children, it would be better if we instruct them in the values of love and peaceful co existence.
(Shukla, S:2009)
References.
1. S, Shukla (2009)Relevance of Bhagat Singh in modern India [online] available from: http://www.modernghana.com/news/208380/1/relevance-of-bhagat-singh-in-modern-india.html [accessed from: 06.04.2009)
2. ShahidBhagatSingh.org (2006) ShahidBhagatSingh.org [online] available from: http://www.shahidbhagatsingh.org/[accessed:08.04.2009]
3. Bhagat Singh (No date) Cultural India: Leaders: Bhagat Singh [online] available from: http://www.culturalindia.net/leaders/bhagat-singh.html [accessed: 02.04.2008]
4. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Biography (No date) Shaheed Bhagat Singh Biography [online] available from: http://www.iloveindia.com/indian-heroes/bhagat-singh.html [accessed: 07.04.2009]
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