A Symbol stolen from my own people-Response to the Headdress

It has been said ‘whoever owned the Koh-I-Noor ruled the world” (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

“A brilliant diamond, the 'Koh-i-noor’s trail is littered by misery, unhappiness and war.”

There was a period when Indian diamonds were very famous the world over. These included the Koh-i-noor, Orlov, the Great Moghul, Darya-i-noor, Indore pears, Shah and Arcots. These were all part of the treasure houses of the great emperors of India. Today, they are all in the hands of outsiders.
(Kaur, H: Date)



The legendary Koh-i-noor has been in the eye of the storm ever since it left the hands of its original owners - a diamond which was never bought or sold, but changed many hands. Koh-i-noor has left a trail that speaks of greed, power, murder, mayhem and unhappiness. (Kaur, H: Date)

According to all references, Koh-i-noor was never that great to look at in its early days. It was just another diamond that was dull, non-sparkling and a little yellow in appearance.

Many legends say that the Koh-i-noor was mined in India, and at least 4,000 years old. It received a mention in the 1300s, when it was named in the Baburnama. One account states that Babur got his hands on the diamond in Gujarat; another says he got it in the Deccan. But when Babur came to Agra in May 1526, the ruler Vikramaditya most likely gave him the great diamond. There is also evidence that his son Humayun carried a large diamond that his father had handed back to him at Agra and was known as Babur’s diamond for the next 200 years.
(Kaur, H: )

“Legend has suggested that the stone may date from before the time of Christ; theory indicates the possibility of its appearance in the early years of the 1300s; history proves its existence for the past two and a half centuries.” (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

The first writer has stated:

"Reguarding its traditional history, which extends 5000 years further back, nothing need be said here; though it has afforded sundry imaginative writers with a subject for highly characteristic paragraphs we have no record of its having been at any time a cut stone."
(Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

It is there fore uncertain of when the Koh-i-noor has been around for.

Legend



“The earliest authentic reference to a diamond which may have been the Koh-I-Noor is found in the Baburnama, the memoirs of Babur, the first Mogul ruler of India. Born in 1483, Babur (meaning 'lion' -- the name was not given to him at birth but appears to be a nickname, deriving from an Arabic or Persian word meaning 'lion' or 'tiger') was descended in the fifth generation from Tamerlane on the male side and in the fifteenth degree from Genghis Khan on the female side. With the blood in his veins of two of the greatest conquerors Asia has ever seen, it is not all that surprising that Babur himself should have become a great conqueror in his own right.” (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

Sultan-Al-ed-Din Khalji was the ruler of Delhi between 1295-1316. A year previous he had led an expedition to the Deccan or ‘South’ they gained a large amount of goods. Here Sultan Al-Ed-Din was only a Prince, his uncle Jalal-Ud-Din was King. Therefore he Sultan killed his uncle and gained his throne.

Some say he gained the diomand at Gujarat, or some say Deccan.

The second version is not impossible because after his defeat the king fled southwards where he was plundered for a second time, on this occasion by Al-ed-Din's generals.

"More than two centuries later, at the time of Babur, northern India was divided among largely independent chiefs who were in no mood to resist a determined invader. After several probing raids into India, Babur was eventually invited by Daulat Khan, the ruler of Punjab, to help him with his fight against his nephew Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi, who was proving to be a despotic ruler. In 1526 Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi, at the battle of Panipat; another who was slain was Vikramaditya, the former Rajah of Gwailor, who had fought on the side of Ibrahim Lodi. Before going into battle, Vikramaditya had sent all his jewels to the fort of Agra of which he was the Qilidar. Among these jewels was a notable diamond. It has been considered possible -- though, in view of his disposition, unlikely -- that originally Ala-ed-Din may have rewarded Vikramaditya's ancestors, two faithful brothers, not only with Gwailor but also with the diamond." (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

The legend goes Babur came to Agra on the 4th May, 1526 nd the diomand was most likely to have been given to him by Vikramaditya. There however is no real evidence for this.

"When Humayun [Babur's son] arrived, Vikramaditya's people attempted to escape, but were taken by the parties which Humayun had placed upon the watch, and put in custody. Humayun did not permit them to be plundered. Of their own free will they presented to Humayun a peshkash, consisting of a quantity of jewels and precious stones. Among them was the famous diamond which had been acquired by Sultan Alaeddin [Ala-ed-Din]. It is so valuable that a judge of diamonds valued it at half the daily expense of the whole world. It is about eight mishquals. On my arrival, Humayun presented it to me as a peshkash, and I gave it back to him as a present." (Koh-i-noor:Unknown).

There are some who believe that the diomand was perhaps not even owned by Vikramaditya but by Ibrahaim Lodi.

The story goes:

"When Humayun [Babur's son] arrived, Vikramaditya's people attempted to escape, but were taken by the parties which Humayun had placed upon the watch, and put in custody. Humayun did not permit them to be plundered. Of their own free will they presented to Humayun a peshkash, consisting of a quantity of jewels and precious stones. Among them was the famous diamond which had been acquired by Sultan Alaeddin [Ala-ed-Din]. It is so valuable that a judge of diamonds valued it at half the daily expense of the whole world. It is about eight mishquals. On my arrival, Humayun presented it to me as a peshkash, and I gave it back to him as a present. When Humayun entered the palace the female members of Vikramaditya's family were weeping, so he assured them their honor would be safe in his hands and that he would treat them according to their high station. It was then that Ibrahim Lodi's mother went silently into a room and emerged with a gold box, which, with trembling hands, she handed to the young prince. Humayun opened the box and took out the diamond.” (Koh-i-noor:Unknown).

After Barburs victory his son fell ill Humayan someone suggested Barbur should sacrifice his most prized pssession -hoping it would be the jewel. However it was his own life Barbur believed to be his most prized possesion.

“The story goes that Babur moved around the bed of his ailing son, praying that Humayun's life would be spared and his own life be sacrificed instead. From then on Humayun's condition improved while Babur declined and died in December of 1530.” (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

Humaya’s reign lasted 26 years he was driven out by Sher Kahn’s Afghan Forces. He then went into exile only to return after 15 years. He only kept Defeated by the Afgh
Ns, it is known Humayan carried the dir 6months and then died from falling down the stairs of his Library. After being driven out by the Afghans it is known Barbur carried the diamond with him. The diamond for the next 200 years was known as the Barbur Diamond.


“The ruler of a domain where he had sought sancuary wanted to acquire the gem so, taking advantage of the refugee's plight, he sent one of his courtiers, disguised as a merchant, to bargain with him. When this man presented himself and explained the purpose of his visit, Humayun was furious and replied:

"Such precious gems cannot be bought; either they fall to one by arbitrament of the flashing sword, which is an expression of divine will, or else they come through the grace of mighty monarchs." (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

Whilst exiling Humayan went to Persia, where Persia’s ruer Shah Tahmasp looked after him humbly , Humayan in gratitude gave his jewels to him.

“Humayun's successor, has told in his Akbarnama that among the jewels which Shah Tahmasp received was the gem known as 'Babur's diamond', so valuable that it was worth the revenue of countries. Another writer referred to Humayun's gift of the diamond and other jewels and related that Shah Tahmasp was so astonished at seeing them that he sent for his jewelers to appraise them. They told him that they were 'above all price'.”

The presentation of this amazing diamond to the ruler of Persia by Humayun was confirmed by Khur Shah, the Ambassador of Ibrahim Qutb, King of Golconda, at the Persian court. he told of the gift of a diamond of six mishquals, that was requarded to be worth the expenditure of the whole universe for 2½ days.“ (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

Shah Tamasp however did not think it was of such value and sent it to India as a present to Burnan Nizam, the Shah of Ahmdnagar.

Mehtar Jamal perhaps did not send it ad their were later orders form Shah to arrest Mehtar.

These events took place in 1547. From then on until the sack and plunder of Delhi in 1739 the diamond's history must be one of speculation and conjecture. In the mean time a series of happenings took place which have important bearing on the history of Babur's diamond.

The 1650’s Moguls Emperor was now Shah Jahan, great-grandson of Humayan.
He appointed hi 3r son Aurangzeb to governship of the Deccan .
He wanted ti conquer the independat States in India-one which was Golcanda. This was the main diamond mining area.

Mir Jumla was a diomand dealer, ehe carried a high repuation in Persia. Mir Jumla worked for the King of Golcanda.

These events took place in 1547. From then on until the sack and plunder of Delhi in 1739 the diamond's history must be one of speculation and conjecture. In the mean time a series of happenings took place which have important bearing on the history of Babur's diamond.

Arangzeb then came into contact with Mir Jumla and they both travelled to Dehli in 1656, to meet Shah Jahan.

According to an acoount it is said that they exchanged gifts one being a diomand at 160 ratis in weight.

Francois Bernier says:

"Jumla, who by his address contrived to obtain frequent invitations to the Court of Shah Jahan, proceeded at length to Agra and carried the most magnificent presents in hope of inducing the Mogul Emperor to declare war against the Kings of Golconda and Bijapur and against the Portuguese. It was on this occasion that he presented Shah Jahan with that celebrated diamond which has been generally deemed unparalleled in size and beauty." (Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

Whist Jean Baptiste reads:

"During his reign he [Shah Jahan] had begun to build the city of Jehanabad, though he had not quite finish'd it, and therefore he desir'd to see it once more before he dy'd: but Aurangzeb would not give him leave, unless he would be content to go and come back by water, or else to be confin'd to the Castle of Jehanabad, as he was at Agra, which refusal of his son did torment him, that it hasten'd his end. Which as soon as Aurangzeb heard of, he came to Agra and seiz'd upon all the jewels which he had not taken from his father while he liv'd. Begum Saheb had also a quantity of jewels, which he had not taken from her when he put her into the Castle. But now, because she had formerly taken her father's part, he found out a way to deprive her of them after a very plausible manner, making a show of bestowing very great Honours and Caresses upon his Sister, and taking her along with him to Jehanabad. But in a short time after we heard the news of her death; ... and all people suspected her to have been poisoned."

The uncertainty of whether or not this jewel was in fact the Koh-I-Noor is a question yet to be answered. The diomand passed onto Aurangzeb and then given to shah Jahan-was said to havee been uncut.

Bernier says the diomand received form Mir Jumla

"that celebrated diamond which has been generally deemed unparalleled in size and beauty"? Is it Babur's diamond? These and other questions were asked by several authorities following the arrival of the Koh-I-Noor in England in 1850.

When the Koh-I-Noor first was brought to England it was thought to be the Great Mogul and Babur’s diomand different.
However many believe Babur’s diomand to be the Koh-I-Noor.



James Tennant voiced his views:

The Koh-I-Noor once considering all evidence is sure to be Babur’s diomand.



After 50 years reigning Aurangzeb died in 1707. This ended the rule of the Moguls-six Emperors , followed, however much weaker, reigning over a 13 year period all died in an unnatural way.

Nudir Kuli ‘Slave to the Wonderful’ in the west of Persia.

Nadir Kuli..was a young shepherd who, when 18, was abducted together with his mother by a raiding party of Uzbegs to Khiva. Four years later the mother died in slavery, but the young Nadir succeeded in escaping to Khorasan where his first step up the ladder of power was his entry into the service of the Governor of Abivard (then the capitol of the district). Under Nadir Kuli, who in 1732 dethroned the weak ruler of Persia and usurped the throne for his stead four years later, Persia became a major power. After he had defeated the Afghans and the Turks and caused the Russians to evacuate the Caspian provinces, Nadir Shah turned his attention to the east, towards the declining empire of the Moguls. The reigning Emperor, Mohammed Shah, who had ascended the throne in 1719, was a pitiful descendant of the once omnipotent Moguls; he was described as "never without a mistress in his arms and a glass in his hand". Rich pickings awaited the Persians as the Emperor realized his predicament far too late. The decisive battle of Karnal in 1738 was over in 2 hours: the vast Indian army was defeated, more than 20,000 slain on the battlefield, a greater number taken prisoner and an immense hoard of spoils captured. In triumph Nadir Shah marched into Delhi where he was entertained sumptuously by the defeated Mohammed Shah. Among the treasures which the Emperor handed over to Nadir Shah was the famed Peacock Throne which Tavernier described:

Peacock throne is described by Tavernier as:

Nadir Kuli..was a young shepherd who, when 18, was abducted together with his mother by a raiding party of Uzbegs to Khiva. Four years later the mother died in slavery, but the young Nadir succeeded in escaping to Khorasan where his first step up the ladder of power was his entry into the service of the Governor of Abivard (then the capitol of the district). Under Nadir Kuli, who in 1732 dethroned the weak ruler of Persia and usurped the throne for his stead four years later, Persia became a major power. After he had defeated the Afghans and the Turks and caused the Russians to evacuate the Caspian provinces, Nadir Shah turned his attention to the east, towards the declining empire of the Moguls. The reigning Emperor, Mohammed Shah, who had ascended the throne in 1719, was a pitiful descendant of the once omnipotent Moguls; he was described as "never without a mistress in his arms and a glass in his hand". Rich pickings awaited the Persians as the Emperor realized his predicament far too late. The decisive battle of Karnal in 1738 was over in 2 hours: the vast Indian army was defeated, more than 20,000 slain on the battlefield, a greater number taken prisoner and an immense hoard of spoils captured. In triumph Nadir Shah marched into Delhi where he was entertained sumptuously by the defeated Mohammed Shah. Among the treasures which the Emperor handed over to Nadir Shah was the famed Peacock Throne which Tavernier described:


The large diomand pendant was thought to be the Shah Diomand-the Koh-I-Noor is not mentioned.

Nadir Shah was however desperate to gain the diomand
There are two stories of how Nadir did this:

One says that Mohammed Shah gave it to Nadir Shah, possibly in gratitude for sparing either his life or his empire. This seems unlikely, and anyway, the second, which has come to be accepted as the true version of the story, is both more plausible and more colorful. Whenever stories are told about the Koh-I-Noor, this particular one tends to pop up more than others.

The disclosure of the secret hiding place of the Koh-I-Noor was made by one of the Emperor's harem; she told Nadir Shah that Mohammed always kept it hidden in his turban. So the shrewd Nadir Shah had recourse to a clever trick. He ordered a grand feast to be celebrated a few days later to coincide with the restoration of Mohammed Shah to his throne. During the course of it Nadir Shah suddenly proposed an exchange of turbans, which is a well-known oriental custom signifying the creation of brotherly ties, sincerity and eternal friendship. Mohammed Shah was taken aback by his quick-thinking rival but at the same time was hardly in a position to resist such a request. With as much grace as he could summon - in fact his composure was such that Nadir Shah thought he had been hoaxed - he accepted. Eventually when Nadir Shah had gone to his private apartment for the night, he unfolded the turban and found the diamond concealed within. It was when he set his eyes on it that he exclaimed "Koh-I-Noor", meaning "Mountain of Light". The most famous diamond in history now had a name.

Nadir Shah’s visit t Delhi was ended in 1739 which saw a mass rioting and rubberier the Koh-I-Noor was taken and brought again to Persia.

Nadir Shah became increasingsly corrupted, cruel and driven by greed.
In 1747 he was killed whilst asleep.
Persia was now in ruins and their army was virtual extinct.

The next sixty years or so were the most violent and blood-stained in the history of the Koh-I-Noor. The same pattern of events occured after the demise of Nadir Shah as after that of Aurangzeb: a strong ruler was followed by a series of weak ones. Nadir Shah's successor was Ali Kuli who ascended the throne as Adil Shah, meaning "the Just". His first act was to rid himself of all possible claimants to the throne of Persia with the solitary exception of Shah Rukh Mirza, the 14-year-old grandson of Nadir Shah. But after a short and disgraceful reign, Adil Shah was dethroned and blinded by his brother Ibrahim, who, in turn, suffered the same fate before being captured and put to death by his own troops. Then Shah Rukh took the throne, but another pretender soon appeared and the young king was defeated, also having his eyes put out. Shah Rukh reigned in name, if not in fact, for almost 50 years; his supporter was Ahmed Abdali, an Afghan who had been one of Nadir Shah's most capable generals before he returned to Afghanistan, subdued it, and established himself as its ruler. For the help which he had received from him, Shah Rukh gave Ahmad Abdali important jewels, one of which was the Koh-I-Noor Diamond.

Shah Rukh paid dearly for his gift to Ahmad Shah of the Koh-I-Noor because Aga Mohammed Khan was convinced that the unfortunate man was still in possession of the stone. Deserted by his son, who was unaware of the jewels that he had once owned, Shah Rukh, now blind, was forced to endure the most horrific torture by the cruel ruler, who had an insatiable appetite for gems. As the torturing continued, jewels previously hidden were given up one by one. The final torture which Shah Rukh suffered at the hands of Aga Mohammed Shah was to have his head closely shaved and covered with a thick paste on which boiling water was poured. The last gem he gave up was a large ruby which had once belonged to Aurangzeb. The torture then stopped, but Shah Rukh died from its effects soon afterwards.


During this blood hungry savage in Afghanistan where the Koh-I-Noor was infact being held by Ahmad Shah was defeated by his own son, Timur. Ahmad Shah had 23 sons.
Civil war came aout ith the Zaman Shah the eldest becoming King in 1793. #
Mahmud another son blinded him 6 years later and took the throne. In 1803 his brother Shuja imprisoned him and took the throne.

7 years later Mahmud escaped and took back his throne. None however had the Koh-I-Noor as Zaman Shah had stolen it and put it in the prison walls.

Shah Shuja reained the throne and the diomand, as the hiding place had been pointed out by Zaman Shah.

In 1810 Saddozai of Afghanistan broke up th two rothers Zaman and Shah and sought refuge with Ranjit Singh known as “The Lion of Punjab”
Ranjit Singh ruler of Punjab, must have known about the Koh-I-Noor as he was immediately requesting it.



However Shah Shuja was not keen on handing it over and gave a number of excuses.

Once he told him that the stone had been pawned with a money-lender. On another occasion he said that it had been lost with some other jewels. On a third occasion Shah Shuja sent Ranjit Singh a large white topaz, saying it was the diamond; and when his court jewelers examined it and told him that it wasn't a diamond, Ranjit Singh was furious. He posted a guard around Shah Shuja's residence with orders that he was not to receive food or water for two days. In the end Shah Shuja realizing his hopeless situation, agreed to give the diamond to Ranjit Singh, on the condition that he arrive in person to receive it from him.

Ranjit Singh accepted Shah Shuja's proposal and on June 1st, 1813 went to his residence to claim the diamond. The customary greetings took place, then the two kings sat opposite of each other in silence for some time before Ranjit Singh reminded Shah Shuja of the reason for his visit. A servant was then ordered to bring the gem from another room and when he returned with a bundle Ranjit Singh unwrapped it and found the Koh-I-Noor inside. He left the room without saying a word.

Ranjit Singh was the most powerful Sikh King to rule.
He was followed y his son Dullip Singh, who began his reign in 1843.

The two Sikh Wars were fought during his reign, leading to the annexation of the Punjab by the British. On March 29th, 1849, the British flag was hoisted on the citadel of Lahore and the Punjab was formally proclaimed to be part of the British Empire in India. One of the terms of the Treaty of Lahore was as follows:

"The gem called the Koh-I-Noor which was taken from Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk by Maharajah Ranjit Singh shall be surrendered by the Maharajah of Lahore to the Queen of England."
(Koh-i-noor:Unknown)

"The British were rather disappointed at the lack of 'fire' in the diamond, and so they decided it should be re-cut to make it more brilliant. This further reduced it from 186 carats to its present size of just under 109 carats. Over centuries of murder and mayhem, brutality and torture - not to mention deceit and duplicity - the stone had long carried with it a curse that misfortune would always befall its owner, though any woman wearing it would remain unharmed. There was some talk of whether Queen Victoria would return the stone because of the curse. Defiant as always, however, she was adamant it should instead be re-cut and set in a tiara along with over 2000 other royal diamonds.

In 1911 a new crown was made for the coronation of Queen Mary, with the Koh-i-noor at its centre. Then in 1937 the stone was transferred to another new crown, this time for the coronation of Elizabeth (later to become the Queen Mother) as Queen Consort and Empress of India." (BBC:2002)

The Koh-i-noor diamond belongs to India, Gandhi family says:

The Crown Of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (1937) Made Of Platinum And Containing The Famous Koh-i-noor Diamond Along With Other Gems.

The diamond is part of the Crown Jewels

Spurred by a campaign to stop the sale of Mahatma Gandhi's spectacles and sandals in New York, the great-grandson of the Indian independence leader is calling for Britain to return the Koh-i-noor diamond to India.

He urged the authorities to do more to return other treasures, including the Koh-i-noor, which was presented to Queen Victoria in 1850. “The Koh-i-noor diamond is something that rightfully belongs to India,” Mr Gandhi, who heads the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation, told The Times.

“If the jewels of Windsor were held by an Arab sheikh, then Britain wouldn't really like that. I'd love to see it back in India. Returning it would be atonement for the colonial past.”
Times Archive

“The important thing is that we have succeeded,” Mr Gandhi said.

“We take a lot of pride in being an ancient civilisation, with a rich cultural heritage, but if we're not going to protect it then what does it matter?”

(Jeremy:2009)

A Voice now Dead.- Mother Tongue.

With a Nation now dying out, their language is soon to follow. The Native Americans mother tongue separates them from there of the world, as a singular unit, as does all languages. The language is not only a mere communication skill however it is a oneness amongst their people and culture. However this begs the question of what the Native American language is and where it originated from? “The absence of grammars handed down from the past, owing to either the dearth of writing or the destruction of written texts, has further hampered the study of the Native American tongues.” Native American People: First People of America. Due to the amount of different tribes and geographical regions there is a mass range of Native languages. Three geographical locations are headed under all regions. These are: North America ( Including Mexico) Central America and the West Indies. The language spoken in the 15th Century by Native Americans is now extinct. It is unknown as to how many languages were in fact used. Due to the European Conquest in the 20th Century two thirds of the American Indigenous languages have already died out. The Native American languages are said to have much diversity within their language.

Grammalot.

This is used so that all Native Americans can join together and celebrate as one and be understood. A grammatical characteristic of widespread occurrence in Native American languages is polysynthesism. A polysynthetic language is one in which a number of word elements are joined together to form a composite word that functions as the sentence does in Indo-European languages. Thus, a sentence or phrase is expressed by one long word unit, each element of which has meaning usually only as part of the sentence or phrase and not as a separate item. In a polysynthetic language, no clear distinction is made between a word and a sentence. For example, a series of words expressing several connected ideas, such as I am searching for my lost horse, would be merged to form a single word or meaning unit. Edward Sapir, a major scholar in the field of Native American languages, first presented the following, much-quoted word unit from Southern Paiute:wiitokuchumpunkurganiyugwivantm, meaning they-who-are-going-to-sit-and-cut-up-with-a-knife-a-black-female- (or male-) buffalo. It is thought that the numerous aboriginal tongues showing polysynthesism may originally have been the offshoots of a single parent language. Some Native Americans words have been stolen by the western civilisation. English, for example, has been enriched by such words as moccasin, moose, mukluk, raccoon, skunk, terrapin, tomahawk, totem, and wampum from indigenous North American languages; by chocolate, coyote, and tomato from indigenous Mexican tongues; by barbecue, cannibal, hurricane, maize, and potato from aboriginal languages of the West Indies; and by coca, condor, guano, jaguar, llama, maraca, pampa, puma, quinine, tapioca, and vicua from indigenous South American languages. It is said that the Native American language will eventually be extinct. Native American’s have set up organisations to help revive their native language and sustain their culture. Some groups of native Americans in the United States are working to revitalize the languages of their peoples as a result of increased ethnic consciousness and feelings of cultural identity. The outlook for the future of the indigenous American languages is not good; most will probably die out. This is a nations mother tongue which connects them to their culture and people. At present, the aboriginal languages of the Western Hemisphere are gradually being replaced by the Indo-European tongues of the European conquerors and settlers of the New World English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Dutch.

My own language Punjabi, which is unfortunately not my mother tongue, however my second language has brought me together with my own people. I have noticed over the years how speaking my own language with the British-youth society makes us feel as though we are the same and part of a culture which sets us apart from others. If anything the fact I can speak and understand the language with my peers has brought me closer to them. I wonder if I had not known my language I perhaps would not feel as close to them and our understanding of one another would be much different. I feel as though my Punjabi language brings me closer to my culture. I believe I would not be able to embrace my culture fully without the simple basis of the language to root me in.

Rituals Within My Own Culture: Understanding the Native American Life.

Majority of the Native American religion and history has been constructed on both myths and legends. The Native American beliefs are often seen as mere myth or story much like the way superstitions within society are looked upon today.

"Like people the world over, most Indians are highly superstitious. Many aspects of their life is linked to some superstitious belief and some of these are even mentioned in religious literature." (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

"Most of these superstitions are linked to the respective planets presiding over each day (see Hindu Calendar). The kitchen is virtually the temple of a Hindu home and the highest levels of hygiene are expected to be maintained. Most Hindus do not enter a kitchen with their shoes on, as it is said to induce the wrath of the gods. This belief originated when kitchens were traditional, with mud stoves in a corner. Families sat on the floor and ate off plates or leaves placed on the ground. This required the kitchen to be absolutely clean. Another belief linked to this was that before eating their food, people sprinkled water around their plates supposedly in remembrance of their ancestors. Actually, the water around the plate acted as a barrier against the ants and insects that crept about the kitchen floor." (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

As well as Hindu’s there are many cultural superstitions within the Indian community.

No matter which part of the world you tour, you will find the natives nurturing certain beliefs and superstitions and India is no exception in this case. Though the Indian society is fast progressing, there are many people who are still superstitious and have a strong faith in the local beliefs.

The standard viewpoint is that most of the Indian beliefs and values have sprung with an objective to protect from evil spirits, but some were based on scientific reasoning. With the passage of time, the reasoning part behind the origin of these cultural beliefs and superstitions got eroded.

Superstitions are deemed as pertinent in India because these, generally, hint at future occurrences and can be either good or bad. Many of the traditional superstitions in India are connected with. (iloveindia:Unknown)

'Nazar'

The jealous eye-The belief that those that look at you in either a jealous, envious or simply admiration will give you Nazar.

When I used to get ill my Nan would say it was Nazar. To then take this away she would do a ritual which consisted of getting peppers -hot chillies , a handful and putting these around the head 8 times then going across the body then following it down to your toes. The whole time she would say a ritualistic pray. These would then be burnt on the stove to take the evil away.

To banish the evil eye other forms can be used like a black thread 'Kallah Tharga' which is woven from hand to foot and then twisted together. I wore mine for seven years. Until a
PE Teacher cut it off at 13 years of age.

Other black objects can be used-these are Black as it seen as an unattractive colour and therefore will make you look less attractive. My mum would put black eyeliner behind my ear. I would then have a mark as to be tainted and therefore not as attractive.

This is strange as in the Hindu culture many songs are written suggesting a woman to look more beautiful with eye liner on, and this will bring about the evil eye?

Before I went on school trips my mum would make me eat sugar and yogurt together!
To protect me.

Funerals.
When coming from a funeral one must put water on their hips, feet and hands seven times. This is done to make sure the spirit has not come with you.

There are also many superstitions related to death. The most important among them is that food is not cooked in a house where death has occurred. At this time, all the members of the family are considered to be unclean and do not enter the kitchen. Neighbours are expected to cook and send food for them. This belief probably results from the fact that when a death occurs in a family, the relatives of the deceased are , and have neither the desire nor the time to cook. This practice also reinforces the sense of community at times of trouble.
(Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

Looking in the mirror at night

Night times are seen as generally more prone to producing bad luck and looking in the mirror makes you a bad person, as bad people look in the mirror to much.

Sweeping the floor at night time is also seen as bad luck. This is seen as brushing all your wealth known as ’Lakshmi’ away.

A persistent belief is that one must not sweep the floor after the sunsets, otherwise Lakshmi would also be swept away. This too is a pre-electricity precaution against inadvertently losing fallen valuables. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

However mornings are also seen as dependant on a person’s luck.

People are also very superstitious about their mornings. It is believed that the whole day is affected by the morning. Seeing a bride, the statue of a deity, or a Brahmin is considered auspicious, while sighting widows, barren women and unlucky people is considered inauspicious. To avoid the risk of seeing anything unpleasant in the morning, many people look at the palms of their hands as soon as they awaken and recite this invocation: "In the tips of the fingers resides Lakshmi; in the middle, Sarasvati; in the palm of the hand resides Parvati; looking at my hands, I begin my day." (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

Calling somebody as they leave the house. This is seen as a bad luck as whatever you are about to do will not happen correctly.

Sneezing before one leaves the house. Or asking 'Where are going' were always deemed bad when I was young, and I was told this is very unlucky to whom ever is going out.

"Leaving on a journey is a very important occasion and precautions have to be taken depending on the importance of the journey. The astrologer is consulted to select an auspicious time to begin. There are several beliefs linked with starting on a journey. A sneeze or terms of dissuasion like "Stay, don't go", or "Where are you going?" used accidentally by someone at this crucial time are ill omens and a person must start again if this happens. It is considered auspicious to see cow dung, cereals, paddy, cotton, hay or a newly wed before starting on a journey." (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

Stepping on books is seen as stepping on your education, which will prevent you getting further in life. This is also frowned upon as study is the up most important part of life and you should respect that.

Certain days are seen as unluckier than others and less fortunate- Tuesday. I have also been told never to cut my hair on a Tuesday as I have a brother and this may ring about bad fortune.

Daily life is governed by do's and don'ts for each day of the week. Thus Monday is not an auspicious day for shaving or Tuesday for washing one's hair or Saturday for buying oil.
Shoes placed on top of objects. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

Lightning struck one should say "Baba freed" To prevent getting electrically shocked as this man put electricity in a glass and captured it. The electricity said it wouldn't strike on the person who said this.

When the right hand itches it means good luck and the reverse applies to the left hand. This relates simply to the clean (right) and unclean (left) sides of the body. Paradoxically, twitching of the right eye is considered inauspicious and of e left eye, auspicious. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

There is also a strong belief in the power of dreams, as divine warnings. Dreaming of gods, demons, auspicious animals or any other auspicious thing is good. Whereas, dreaming of gold or iron, falling stars or earthquakes is bad. There are many people who claim to be able to decipher dreams and their talents are employed by believers.


There are other common beliefs devised for protection. One should neither clip one's nails at night nor use scissors for fear of angering evil spirits. This diktat prevailed in the days before electricity as a deterrent to injuring one's fingers in the dark, but many mothers still enforce this rule at home, the reasoning being lost in time.

I was always told as a young girl never to play with scissors or use scissors at night. I assumed it would bring bad-luck.

Some other popular superstitions are if a person hiccups, it is believed that someone is talking about him or remembering him. One theory holds that this is a way of keeping alive the memory of family members who are traveling or live far away.

I often have heard my mother say when her ear itches someone is thinking of her, when she bites her tongue somebody is thinking of her.

The falling of utensils on the floor foretells the coming of guests. Breaking a mirror is extremely inauspicious. This belief is meant to urge caution while handling something as fragile and potentially injurious as glass, as most people were barefoot inside the house.

This superstition is known in the European culture too, however many also believe it brings about seven years bad luck.

There is a superstitious belief in some parts of the country that when a child is born, its father must not see its face till it is six months old as it might lead to ill-luck. Therefore some time before the child is born, the mother is sent to her parents' home. This serves two practical purposes: the mother is pampered by her own mother, and so is the baby, as all the mother's attention is cantered on her child, with no distractions of looking after her husband or doing other chores.

My mother left Germany to be with her mother, as it is tradition for the daughter to do so.

In the post-partum period and while menstruating, a woman is debarred from attending any ceremony. She is also not allowed to enter the kitchen or mingle with others, as she is believed to be impure and unclean at this time. The underlying idea is that a woman at this time requires complete rest and a religious edict protects her from unnecessary exertion. Personal appearance, gait, manner and speech are all said to indicate the future. The location, size and number of moles on the body brand someone as auspicious or inauspicious. It is believed that the presence of a sign resembling a wheel on any part of the body is extremely lucky. The right side of the body is considered to be more auspicious than the left. This is so because the left hand is used for all 'unclean' actions. Therefore a man ensures that he first puts his right foot into a house. All ceremonies are conducted with the right hand. Gifts are also given and accepted only with the right hand. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

Muslims also believe right or left have an effect on prosperity and life. It is told in the Muslim holy book ‘Karan’ one must leave on the left foot and enter on the right.

Marriage, one of the most important events in life, has many superstitions associated with it. It is believed that a new bride brings luck and prosperity with her and that her fortune is mingled with that of the groom's family. For the first one year of marriage, all happenings in the family are monitored and accordingly the bride is termed auspicious or inauspicious. Any good or bad occurrence in the family during this time is said to result from the presence of the bride. A new bride is however, generally considered to be auspicious.

On the other hand, widows were considered especially inauspicious. This belief probably stemmed from her traditional financial powerlessness. Widows were debarred from attending any auspicious ceremony, as it was believed that their presence might negatively affect its success. A new bride was protected from the glance of a widow for the same reason. Therefore widows had separate areas to live in where they cooked their own food. They were not allowed to eat meat, onions, garlic or spices for these were considered excitatory, and a widow was supposed to suppress, not inflame her passions. Most of these rules have fallen into disuse now.

A barren woman is still considered inauspicious by many, given the patriarchal social system and its emphasis on children especially sons. Such a woman, though not debarred, is avoided during all auspicious occasions by those with a rigidly traditional outlook. During the nuptial bath and other ceremonies related to marriage, which require the presence of suhagans, it is generally women with sons, pregnant women or the newly married, who participate. A barren woman is not brought near a bride or child for whom a ceremony is being performed for fear that her ill fate will rub off onto them. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)

European Superstitions.

I have come aware of many superstitions growing up within Britain. It is always interesting for me to view the differences and similarities between the two different cultures I belong to.

Sneezing seems to be a superstition in every case which brings auspicious luck. Here the Europeans Bless the other person in a way of preventing them with bad luck.
The reasons for these customs today however are not known and most do this out of politeness.

Sneezing "God Bess you"

Sneezing as you leave to go somewhere is also seen as unlucky. As whatever the deed you are going to do will not be fulfilled.

Walking under a ladder is seen as incredibly unlucky to many.


Animals are referred to in the European culture through birds (Magpies) and cats, horses and rabbits.


To see 1, 3 , 5 , 7 Magpies unlucky, however if you see 2, 4 ,6 this is lucky.

Spitting after you see a magpie will cause the bad luck to leave you.

Black cat crossing one's path are also seen as un lucky. This I am told by my father originates from India.

Horse shoes are deemed as bringing about prosperity.

A Rabbits ear is also seen as very lucky.

Many Native superstitions are surrounded by animals as well. These can be seen through the Buffalo and White Deer as well as Eagle and several others.

India to believe some animals to bring either good or bad fortune.

Many omens relate to animals, birds and reptiles within the Indian culture too.

The most auspicious omen is to see an elephant when one is on a journey, for it represents Ganesha, the god of good luck and the remover of obstacles.

The cawing of a crow in one's house foretells the coming of guests. A peacock seen while on a journey is said to be good but hearing its shrill call indicates robbery by highway men. A dog howling near a sick man's chamber predicts his death. Seeing a cat or a cow's face early in the morning brings ill luck. A sparrow is encouraged to build a nest in a new house for good fortune. A yellow or white substance dropped on the threshold by a cow indicates the gain of gold or silver. To protect cats, which were useful in destroying rats and other pests, the Brahmins imposed a ban on its killing, to be redeemed expensively with an offering of a golden cat to a Brahmin.

The wall lizard boasts the most superstitions. Every movement of this reptile holds some significance, indeed, a science called the Gowli Shastra enumerates these. The colour, spots, stripes, chirping or twittering of the lizard and where it falls on a person's body are said to indicate future happenings. (Ahluwalia, S.P.M:2001)


To protect foolhardy wanderers from snakes and other lurking dangers, it is held that evil spirits infest trees and empty houses, resulting in a lively fear of going to these places at night.

Lemuel K. Washburn--
Where are the sons of gods that loved the daughters of men? Where are the nymphs, the goddesses of the winds and waters? Where are the gnomes that lived inside the earth? Where are the goblins that used to play tricks on mortals? Where are the fairies that could blight or bless the human heart? Where are the ghosts that haunted this globe? Where are the witches that flew in and out of the homes of men? Where is the devil that once roamed over the earth? Where are they? Gone with the ignorance that believed in them.

Superstitions and beliefs are however opposed by the Sikh religion. As the only belief should be in God, and no other spirits, devils or angels ie: Bad luck, good luck.

1. Ahluwalia, S.M.P (2001) Popular Indian Superstitions [online] availale from: http://www.sikhmatrimonials.com/sikhnet/discussion.nsf [accessed: 23.03.2009]

Religion and Origins - My Creator -'IK ONG KAR'

Religions In India.

There are five main religions in India which is the Sikh, Hindu, Islam, Buddhaism and Janism. Jaidism, Christianity, Zoroastranism and Baha’ism have followers, but very few.
Languages also vary and India has several different languages including, Punjabi (there are many different types of Punjabi) , Hindi, Urdu, Gurjarati and many more.

A number of world religions originated in India, and others that started elsewhere found fertile ground for growth there. Devotees of Hinduism, a varied grouping of philosophical and devotional traditions, officially numbered 687.6 million people, or 82 percent of the population in the 1991 census (see table 13, Appendix). Buddhism and Jainism, ancient monastic traditions, have had a major influence on Indian art, philosophy, and society and remain important minority religions in the late twentieth century. Buddhists represented 0.8 percent of the total population while Jains represented 0.4 percent in 1991. (India Religion, religions in India: 2004)

Islam spread from the West throughout South Asia, from the early eighth century, to become the largest minority religion in India. In fact, with 101.5 million Muslims (12.1 percent of the population), India has at least the fourth largest Muslim population in the world (after Indonesia with 174.3 million, Pakistan with 124 million, and Bangladesh with 103 million; some analysts put the number of Indian Muslims even higher--128 million in 1994, which would give India the second largest Muslim population in the world).

Sikhism, which started in Punjab in the sixteenth century, has spread throughout India and the world since the mid-nineteenth century. With nearly 16.3 million adherents, Sikhs represent 1.9 percent of India's population.

Christianity, represented by almost all denominations, traces its history in India back to the time of the apostles and counted 19.6 million members in India in 1991. Judaism and Zoroastrianism, arriving originally with traders and exiles from the West, are represented by small populations, mostly concentrated on India's west coast. A variety of independent tribal religious groups also are lively carriers of unique ethnic traditions.
(India Religion, religions in India: 2004)


Although 80.5% of the population is Hindu, India's Muslim population, which constitutes 13.4% of the population, is the world's second largest Muslim population. Other religious groups include Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others. Eight percent of India's people are classified as tribal.
(Religious Beliefs in India: 2008)


Sikh Faith.

The religion was founded in the Punjab area of India and the holiest site is the Golden Temple (Harmiandir Sahib) in Amritsar – though it is not a place of pilgrimage. Today there are approximately 6 million followers in the Punjab within a total 20 million followers around the world (in the UK there are approximately 350,000 – 500,000).
Sikh Prayer for Peace (World-Faiths, Sikhism: No date)

God adjudges us according
to our deeds,
not the coat that we wear:
that Truth is above everything,
but higher still is truthful living.
Know that we attaineth God when we loveth,
and only victory
endures in consequences of which no
one is defeated.

Sikhism is the youngest of the world religions and was founded in the Punjab area of India in the fifteenth century by Guru Nanak. Guru Nanak was born in 1469. He preached a message of love and understanding. His was a simple message of ‘Ek On Kaar’ – we are all one, created by the one creator of all creation.

In Sikhism Guru Arjan wrote about the non-worshipping of other religions.

‘I observe neither hindu fasting nor the ritual of the Muslim Ramadan month; Him I serve who at the last shall save.The Lord of Universe of the Hindus, Gosain and Allah to me are one; From Hindus and Muslims I have broken free. I perform neither Kaaba pilgrimage nor at bathing spots worship; One Sole Lord I serve, and no other. I perform neither the Hindu worship nor the Muslim prayer; To the Sole formless Lord in my heart I bow. We neither are Hindus nor Muslims; Our body and life belong to the One Supreme being who alone is both Ram and Allah for us.’ (World Faiths, Sikhism:No date)

Guru Nanak passed on his leadership to nine successive Gurus. The last was Guru Gobind Singh
who established the Khalsa in 1708

The holy book of the Sikhs is called the Sri Guru Granth Sahib and is written in Punjabi in a script called Gurumukha (meaning from the mouth of the Guru). The book was compiled by Guru Arjan and placed in the Golden Temple in 1604. (World Faiths, Sikhism:No date)

The first two sentences of the Granth are those which are said by Sikhs every day on wakening:

‘There is but one God, whose name is True, Creator, devoid of fear and enmity, immortal, unborn, self-existent, great and bountiful. The True One is, was, and also shall be.’

In one of his poems, Guru Gobind Singh Sahib defines the Khalsa :

"He who repeats night and day the name of Him,
Who has full love and confidence in God,
Who bestows not a thought on anv but one God,
Whose enduring light is inextinguishable,
Who puts no faith in fasting and worshipping cemeteries and monasteries,
Who only recognises the one God and makes no fetish, Of pilgrimages,
alms, charities and austerities:

He is recognised as a true member of theKhalsa,
In whose heart the light of the Perfect One shines."

A Sikh believes:

· There is only one God and he is the same God for all
religions.

· The soul goes through a cycle of birth and death
before reaching its human form. The goal of life is to
merge with God and to maintain a balance between
spiritual and temporal obligations.

· The true path to God does not mean a renunciation of
the world but through living the life of a householder,
earning an honest living and avoiding temptation and
sin.

· Sikhism condemns rituals such as fasting,

· All people of all races and sex are equal in the eyes of
God. There is total equality between man and woman
and women can participate in any religious function
and lead the congregation in prayer.

Duties of the Khalsa.

Guru Gobind Singh Sahib laid down the following duties for the Khalsa :

I. The Khalsa is to worship one God and read Nitname (Five Banis) and daily meditate on the Name.

II. He is to keep the symbols (Panj Kakar) and to lead his life according to the Guru's teaching. Gurmantra is Waheguru and the Basic creed is Mool-manlra.

III. He has no caste after joining the brother-hood ; he has to repudiate non-Sikh rites and ceremonies, and follow only Sikh practices.

IV. He is not to commit 'any of the four misdeeds (Kurahat) namely, the shaving or cutting of hair, eating Halal meat, adultery and the use of tobacco or any other intoxi-cant.

V. He is not to commit any of the social offences (Tankhah), such as giving dowry, using liquors and intoxicants, raising monuments over graves and associating with apostates.

VI He must contribute one-tenth {daswand) of his income for religious purposes.

VII He is to serve the sangat in all ways

VIII He must practice arms and be ready defend the weak.


"It is through them that I have gained experience ; with their help I have subdued my enemies. Through their favour, I am exalted, otherwise there are millions of ordinary humble men like me."

Meaning of Symbols: Symbols or outward signs are a mode of discipline. A person who enters the Panth (Khalsa Community) will gladly embrace all its tenets and symbols. Symbols test the disciple's firmness and strengh of faith. They indicate the type of character the wearer should have. He must be proud of being a Sikh, even though it may cost him his life. Secondly this common appearance and uniform ensures easy recognition One can easily spot a Khalsa in a crowd. Each symbol has its own use and psychological significance. (Singh. S. Brar:1998)

The significance of Symbols-Panj Kakar- is given below :

I. Underwear {Kachha) ensures agility and briskness. It is a mark of perpetual readi-ness. It also stands for chastity.

II. Wrist-band {Kara} is a sign of restraint and bondage. It indicates that one is a devotee of the Guru. A look at the wrist-band will bring shame to a Sikh when he does any misdeed.

III. Sword (Kirpan) is an emblem of power and courage. It is to be used primarily as an instrument of defence.

IV. Unshorn Hair {Kes) is an emblem of the saints and Rishis of the past.

V. Comb {Kanga} is necessary to keep the hair clean and in shape. The hair make a Khalsa look exactly like Guru Gobind Singh Sahib and enable him to behave exactly like the Guru. Guru Gobind Singh Sahib says, "The Khalsa is my special form ;I live in the embodiment of the Khalsa. The Khalsa is a part and parcel of my body ; the Khalsa is my very soul."

Sikhism

1) Sikhism is a practical religion. It does not consist in a certain set of beliefs or mere words. Religion does not imply wandering to shrines and tombs, or following austerities of Yogis. Sikhism is a way of life, something to be lived according to a pattern. Its main virtue is simplicity. There is no supernaturalism or mythology on which it rests. It does not believe in devils or angels or heavenly spirits.

2) Sikhism is a universal religion.

3) Sikhism is opposed to all ritualism and formalism.

4) Sikhism does not enjoin blind faith. Blind obedience to an external authority is dis-couraged. The death of the intellect can not be a condition of the life of the spirit. Faith does not start with surmises or absurdities.

5) Sikhism is a faith of hope and cheer. Though it affirms Karma, it recognises the possibility of the modification of one's Karma with the grace of the Guru or God. It does not lead to despair and defeatism.

6) Sikhism is a democratic religion. The decisions of the Sangat are regarded as resolutions having the force of law (Gurmatta) Guru Gobind Singh Sahib vested the authority of the organisation in the Panth.
(Singh. S. Brar:1998)

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion. The word Sikh means ‘disciple’ and they are the disciples of God who follow the writings and teachings of the 10 Sikh Gurus. A Sikh is a:

’Any human being who faithfully believes in:
(i) One Immortal Being,
(ii) Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Dev to Guru Gobind Singh,
(iii) The Guru Granth Sahib,
(iv) The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and
(v) the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru,
and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion
is a Sikh.’
(vi) Reht Maryada – Sikh Code of Conduct.

(World Faiths, Sikhism: No date)

Adi Granth

The Adi Granth teaches:

"There is one God, Eternal Truth is His Name; Maker of all things, fearing nothing
and at enmity with nothing; Timeless is His Image; Not begotten, being of His own being; By the grace of the Guru made known to men. As he was in the beginning, the Truth; So throughout the ages He ever has been, the Truth; So even now he is the Truth Immanent; So for ever and ever, He shall be Truth Eternal."

These words express the basic belief of Sikhs. Idolatry is forbidden. True worship consists in singing God's praises and in meditating on His Name. To realise Him speculation is useless, and so are also all pilgrimages, and ascetical practices like fasting and celibacy.

God is the Supreme Guru, "Satnam, Wah Guru" (The True Name, The Wondrous Teacher). The Ten Gurus are reverenced because God spoke through them. Nanak had no other Guru but God. His followers, however, reach God through Guru Nanak and the other nine. When the line ended, the God-given "Word of the Gum", remained embodied in the Granth and the temporal function of the Guru was bestowed on the Khalsa. (Indian Traditions: Beliefs and Superstitions:No date)

References:

1. Indian Tradition (No date) 1. Indian Tradition: Beliefs and superstitions [online] available from:
http://www.spainexchange.com/guide/IN-religion.htm [accessed: 17.03.2009]

2. India religions (2004) India religions, Religion in India [online] available from: http://www.indianchild.com/india_religion.htm [accessed: 17.03.2009]

3. Religions in India (No date) Religions in India [online] http://www.religions.iloveindia.com [accessed: 07.04.2009][accessed:17.03.2009]

4. Religious Beliefs in India (2008) India: Religious Beliefs In India [online] available from: http://www.spainexchange.com/guide/IN-religion.htm [accessed: 1703.2009)

5. Ahluwalia. P.S.M (2001) Popular Indian Superstitions [online] available from: http://www.sikhmatrimonials.com/sikhnet/discussion.nsf/ [accessed: 23.03.2009]

6. India (2009) India-Reflections on life, culture, religion 1/2 [online] available from: http://www.sights-and-culture.com/India/India-reflections.html [accessed: 17.03.2009)

7. Brar, S, S (1998) The Sikhism Home Page: The Khalsa [online] available from: http://www.sikhs.org/khalsa.htm [accessed: 17.03.2009]

8. Sikhism (No date) Sikhism [online] available from: http://www.world-faiths.com/Sikhism/sikhism.htm [accessed: 23.03.2009]

9. Oxford Sikhs (2008) Oxford Sikhs: Religions In Punjab [online] available from: http://www.oxfordsikhs.com/MeraPunjab/Religions/default.aspx [accessed: 17.03.2009]

My Response To The Headdress- A Monolgue

In viewing this headdress the first initial thought process is the absence of the people, land and culture which it possesses.

One is struck by the silence of the Natives, however this object speaks volumes. There is a response- the wanting of the voice the headdress embodies. Images are enforced, flickering through the mind.

Questions are inquest upon. Who has the headdress been possessed by? What path has it followed? And how did it come to be here, close to me?

A mental journey is undergone through the land it bestowed.
It speaks of another time, one where this headdress could be free.
Now locked away, it gives a unnerving reality.
This life is dead. Now come to an end, this is all that's left.

A strong sense of spirit, deep within the heart, a nation coming together whom wore this with pride. Wanting to symbolise their roots and illustrate their identity. Escaping prejudice against their ‘own’ country. The claustrophobic feeling of society it leaves, now being captured within this entity.

A sensation creeps, a rush of force- The need to make a stand, alongside the people, in your motherland.

This headdress had a life, a purpose other than to be a symbol of the indigenous people. It’s trail now trapped. It speaks of what ‘once was, but will never be’.

Native American History Origins : A Nation's civilisation destroyed.

Native American History.

“Peoples who occupied North America before the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th cent. They have long been known as Indians because of the belief prevalent at the time of Columbus that the Americas were the outer reaches of the Indies (i.e., the East Indies). Most scholars agree that Native Americans came into the Western Hemisphere from Asia via the Bering Strait in a series of migrations. From Alaska they spread east and south. The several waves of migration are said to account for the many native linguistic families while the common origin is used to explain the physical characteristics that Native Americans have in common (though with considerable variation)Mongoloid features, coarse, straight black hair, dark eyes, sparse body hair, and a skin color ranging from yellow-brown to reddish brown. Many scholars accept evidence of Native American existence in the Americas back more than 25,000 years. In pre-Columbian times (prior to 1492) the Native American population of the area North of Mexico is estimated to have been between one and two million. From prehistoric times until recent historic times there were roughly six major cultural areas, excluding that of the Arctic, i.e., Northwest Coast, Plains, Plateau, Eastern Woodlands, Northern, and Southwest.” (Native American Indians: The First people of America. )

Native American History.

Ref: www.nativeamericans.com

Native American History: A Nation's civilisation destroyed. (A Work In Progress)

"LONG BEFORE the white man set foot on American soil, the American Indians, or rather the Native Americans, had been living in America. When the Europeans came here, there were probably about 10 million Indians populating America north of present-day Mexico. And they had been living in America for quite some time. It is believed that the first Native Americans arrived during the last ice-age, approximately 20,000 - 30,000 years ago through a land-bridge across the Bering Sound, from northeastern Siberia into Alaska. The oldest documented Indian cultures in North America are Sandia (15000 BC), Clovis (12000 BC) and Folsom (8000 BC)" (Unknown:2007)


"Although it is believed that the Indians originated in Asia, few if any of them came from India. The name "Indian" was first applied to them by Christopher Columbus, who believed mistakenly that the mainland and islands of America were part of the Indies, in Asia." (Unknown: 2007)


We know the name given to the Native Americans as ‘Indians’ was due to Christopher Columbus’s belief that the Native Americans were on the outer reaches of the Indies in 15th Century. But where did the Native Americans really come from and what was there real heritage? The home of the Native Americans is thought to be Asia however as yet there is no direct link found to suggest this.

It is ominent that the man can now give any such name to another?

"The Europeans brought with them not only a desire and will to conquer the new continent for all its material richness, but they also brought with them diseases that hit the Indians hard. Conflicts developed between the Native Americans and the Invaders, the latter arriving in overwhelming numbers, as many "as the stars in heaven". The Europeans were accustomed to own land and laid claim to it while they considered the Indians to be nomads with no interest to claim land ownership. The conflicts led to the Indian Wars, the Indian Removal Act empowered by President Andrew Jackson in 1830 and other acts instituted by the Europeans in order to accomplish their objectives, as they viewed them at the time. In these wars the Indian tribes were at a great disadvantage because of their modest numbers, nomadic life, lack of advanced weapons, and unwillingness to cooperate, even in their own defense." (Unknown: 2007)

"The end of the wars more or less coincided with the end of the 19th century. The last major war was not really a war, it was a massacre in 1890 where Indian warriors, women, and children were slaughtered by U.S. cavalrymen at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in a final spasm of ferocity." (Unknown: 2007)

Wounded Knee, Battle of, December 29, 1890, the last important fight between American Indians and United States troops. It is often called a massacre; the band of Sioux involved in it was almost wiped out.

After being restricted to reservations in the Dakotas, the Sioux had turned to a mystic movement known as the Ghost Dance that would, they believed, cause whites to disappear from Indian lands. The federal authorities, fearing an uprising, brought in army units. On December 15, Sitting Bull, the most famous Sioux chief, was killed in a skirmish following an attempt to arrest him. Some of Sitting Bull's followers fled with Chief Big Foot and his band. The U.S. Seventh Cavalry overtook them at Wounded Knee Creek (in what is now South Dakota). As the troopers attempted to disarm the Indians, a shot was fired. (Which side fired the shot is uncertain.) The soldiers then attacked. In the fighting that followed, nearly 300 Sioux, including women and children, were killed; 29 troopers died.

"A stupefying record of greed and treachery, of heroism and pain, had come to an end, a record forever staining the immense history of the westward movement, which in its drama and tragedy is also distinctively and unforgettably American." (Unknown: 2007)



How is it a civilisation living in their own country can be imposed, threatened and eventually ruled? Has this very situation not gone on for years if not centuries?

Hitler's army shows us of the length man has gone to in order to conquer and remove those which impose their society. But one establishes through this that man can achieve this injustice without having to justify. For a nation to be wiped out, who must man answer to? Surely someone? In India we saw the British empire come and rule. A place which they have no cultural relevance to, a place in which is not their home. The greed of man. I ask you, if today we lived in a world where slavery was made the 'norm' would we not follow it too? We don't have to look as far as the past to see our own nation fighting countries and attempting at conquering. Is this not because man is aware they are more powerful and have allies, therefore given a ’right’? Surely a nation can not pick and choose which land it wishes to own? A land which has no relevance to them, but is sacred to someone else. A nations home. Today, we see nation's being destroyed, by a bigger force. If a nation is not as powerful or so injust and corrupt to put up a fight does this mean man can take what it desires?

It was the norm for British to rule India. Do you think a British citizen at that time thought anything wrong with what their government had done? In the same way did the European people see anything 'wrong' with slavery? Sadly, no. Unfortunately we celebrate this as an achievement of us being the great and powerful.

The sketches implanting in our minds of figures brutal and different to us- The native Americans-coarse, straight black hair, dark eyes, sparse body hair, and a skin colour ranging from yellow-brown to reddish brown.
Terrorism today can be seen in much the same way. The ideology of bombs and headscarf’s-threatening our minds. The idea of making us believe we live in fear by those different to us. In much the same way Hitler’s Jews were different ’ugly’ and menacing to our minds. Does this not then give the powerful a path to destroy and rule, without having to justify?



Reference

"Battle of Wounded Knee." 27 February 2008. HowStuffWorks.com. 12 April 2009.

"Return of Casey's scouts from the fight at Wounded Knee, 1890--91."

Native Americans - Wounded Knee, "Big Foot, leader of the Sioux, captured at the battle of Wounded Knee, S.D." Here he lies frozen on the snow-covered battlefield where he died, 1890.

"Big Foot, leader of the Sioux, captured at the battle of Wounded Knee, S.D."

Here he lies frozen on the snow-covered battlefield where he died, 1890.

http://www.nativeamericans.com/WoundedKnee.htm

The Death Of A Nation.

Where Will Our Children Live...

A lonesome warrior stands in fear of what the future brings,
he will never hear the beating drums or the songs his brothers sing.

Our many nations once stood tall and ranged from shore to shore
but most are gone and few remain and the buffalo roam no more.

We shared our food and our land and gave with open hearts,
We wanted peace and love and hope, but all were torn apart.

All this was taken because we did not know what the white man had in store,
They killed our people and raped our lands and the buffalo roam no more.

But those of us who still remain hold our heads up high, and the spirits of
the elders flow through us as if they never died.

Our dreams will live on forever and our nations will be reborn, our bone and
beads and feathers all will be proudly worn.

If you listen close you will hear the drums and songs upon the winds, and in
the distance you will see....the buffalo roam again.

My Place-A monologue

This place gives me a sense of belonging, a place I am rooted to in the world we live in. As I enter into this place I feel as though I have once seen it in a dream. Music playing makes my heart beat a thousand times. It’s as if I embodied it without even knowing. The distinct smell of fresh material. The colours radiating of your skin, making you seem so tranquil and earthly. Bangles clinking together, make me want to release. The words you speak make me feel close and I am not the ‘unknown.’ This world; the beauty of it all coming back to me. The misty air, sun-setting in the horizon, twinkling in my eyes. The presence of God falls upon me. Everywhere I look I see your face shining back at me. Down to the ground, the earth of the land, I want to hold and keep. I want to escape, onto this path. I close my eyes and breath you in, as if taking in life. I’m your child. Standing there in full colour feeling, the material I wear moving to the rhythm of the wind. You set me free.

I see how proud you are as others watch; They say:
‘ Nazar na lag jahi’

To protect me from the evil eye.

I feel like a Queen, I’m mesmerised by this atmosphere of serenity.

That day when it was just us both-and I was much younger. It was raining so fast. You put me under the tree.
“Sorry Shona, I'm sorry you cried. You looked so worried.
I clinged on soaked.
When you came back you looked hurt.
"It was ok, I wish you hadn’t felt so guilty."
I've never forgot that face.

I remember us all together; pure happiness. I felt as if I‘d given you something, which made me proud. For those few moments we shared were what makes life. Gazing at both of you, I was so overwhelmed. I know you’ll never forget that day, neither will I. If only that moment could have stayed forever.

Coyote- ‘Creator’

Coyote- ‘Creator’

" In ages past, our old ones were the storytellers. This was the way things were passed along to the generations that followed. For this reason the aged people made it a point to remember every detail so they could relate it at a later time. They were the word and picture carriers making history and spiritual values alive and important. In recent times we have made our old ones think they are not so important. We spoof their stories and make them feel foolish. The truth is that we are ignorant of what is precious and how to 'a da li he li tse di -- appreciate age. Rigidity can creep in and set even the young mind if there are no soft memories, no laughter, no times too deep for tears. Age is grace -- a time too valuable to waste."
(Hifler, S.J: 1992-pg.9)

The Coyote myth lore is one of the most popular among the Native American. Coyote is a ubiquitous being and can be categorized in many types. In creation myths, Coyote appears as the Creator himself; but he may at the same time be the messenger, the culture hero, the trickster, the fool. He has also the ability of the transformer: in some stories he is a handsome young man; in others he is an animal; yet others present him as just a power, a sacred one.

Certain myths could not be told lightly. They formed the basis of sacred rituals, including ceremonies in which participants acted out traditional sacred stories. Many Native Americans believed that some myths could be told only at certain times, often during winter nights. A dire fate—such as an attack by snakes—awaited those who told the stories at the wrong time. Other myths resembled folktales. They could be told for fun or to teach a lesson about proper behaviour, and those who told them were free to change or add elements to the basic story. Many such tales involved tricksters. (Kazakova, T: 2004)

Coyote is known as the prairie wolf.
A species of Candid -Found in North and Central America, South, North, Mexico , U.S and Canada and as far as Alaska.

19 recognised subspecies. 16 in Canada, Mexico and US and 3 in Central U.S.

The Coyote is related to the Gray Wolf.

The Coyote reproduce in metro political areas.

Coyote’s name originates from Mexico means ’barking clog’.

Coyote Mythology.

The Coyotes antagonist is his brother, the wolf.
The wolf is wise and good natured but always gives into his demands.

In the Northwest, the Coyote is seen as sexual-white settlers were perhaps to scandalous to retell such stories.

These stories have banished by sexually conservative European-Americans.

Coyote Followers:

California.

Kraus, Tongra of Southern California.
Ohlone mythology of Northern California
The Miwor mythology of Northern California.
Pomo mythology of Northern California.

Great Plains.

Crow Mythology.
Ho Chunk Mythology
Menominee

Plateau.

Myths and Stories of Coyote can also be found in cultures of Plateau.

The Chinook an (including Wishram people and Multnomah)
The Falthead
The Nez Perce
The Nlaka’pamux
Secwepemc#St’at’imc
Tssilqo’tin
Yakama.

According to the mythologies of most Native American cultures, their people originated in the places where their ancestors traditionally lived. Some tales speak of ancient migrations. However, Native Americans are descended from hunting and gathering peoples of northeastern Asia who travelled across the Bering Sea into North America during the most recent Ice Age. During that Ice Age, which ended around 8000 B.C., the level of the oceans was much lower, and a bridge of land linked Siberia and Alaska. Some groups may also have reached Alaska from Siberia by boat or by walking on ice. Over thousands of years, the population of North America grew and diversified into the peoples and cultures that Europeans encountered when they began to colonize the continent in the A.D. 1500s.(Native American Mythology, Encyclopedia of Myths:2008)

Mythology, religion, history, and ritual were not separate things for Native American peoples. They were strands woven together in the various tales and stories that defined peoples' identity and gave order and meaning to their lives. The most serious of these were myths about how the gods created and ordered the universe and about the origins of important things such as humans, landforms, food, and death.

The Oral Tradition. Before the arrival of Europeans and the spread of European influence, Native Americans did not use written languages. As a result, their myths and legends were passed from generation to generation in oral form, usually by special storytellers who sometimes used objects such as stone carvings, shells, rugs, or pottery to illustrate the tales.
(Native American Mythology, Encyclopedia of Myths:2008)

There are many different stories known throughout Native American tribes about Coyote. Each tribe portrays their coyote an individual way and his meaning is transformed from one legend to the next.

COYOTE (South-western Indians, but known in other areas as well) -
A trickster, a clown. The creator and teacher of men. Like Loki, Coyote is always lurking about, causing trouble and playing pranks. To the Zunis, Coyote is a hero who set forth the laws by which men may live in peace. The Pomo Indians maintain that Coyote created the human race and stole the sun to keep them warm. The Montana Sioux say that Coyote created the horse.
(Burke,N: 2008)

Coyote is either presented as noble or bad.

More often than not Coyote is a trickster, but he is always different. In some stories, he is a noble trickster, "Coyote takes water from the Frog people... because it is not right that one people have all the water." 9. In others, he is mean, "Coyote determined to bring harm to Duck. He took Duck's wife and children, whom he treated badly." 10. (Kazakova, T: 2004)

Coyote is shape shifter, Illuminator and uses pranks to teach and help people learn by their foolish mistakes and to laugh at themselves. (J, Stefko: 2006 )

The coyote is seen as a trickster, some stories he is a Buffoon and some see him as evil.
Coyote myths vary from tribe-to-tribe. Each Native tribe has their own individual myths and stories following Coyote.

Coyote however comes in many forms, Man or animal.
Coyote usually male, resembles a human although has features like a coyote-fur, pointed ears, yellow eyes, tail and claws.

Coyote is cunning, a shapeshifter, opportunity, stealth, white and dark magic, creativity, illumination, experience and new life. He stole fire for the humans, but he can also create floods. Trickster of Native American tales often gets duped, but he always rebounds and, at some point, even teaches himself lessons he learns from.(Jill Stefko: 2006)

Positive Traits.

Humour
Cleverness

Negative Traits

Greed
Desire
Recklessness
Impulsiveness
Jealousy

Coyote according to many tribes is the great trickster. He is often fooled and astonished by the outcome of his own pranks. He survives this, then goes onto not learning by his mistakes and makes bigger ones. He denotes both folly and wisdom and the balance of the two. Wisdom is hidden in the foolery. He may have lost the skirmish, but remains unbeaten. Coyote is keeper of magic, teacher and creator. The cycle of power is year around.

People see their weaknesses in his foolish acts. He helps them to become aware of their silliness and learn from it. Coyote teaches by folly. The message is to see through the actions of self sabotage, laugh at oneself and learn.( Jill Stefko: 2006)

The Native Americans tribes differences of on who and what is our ’creator’ can be seen within many religions of our time. As well as the idea of a 'sense of spiritual force' sensed -through earth, land and animals etc.

Each tribe shares their own interpretation of “ the creation of the world, the appearance of the first people, the place of humans in the universe, and the lives and deeds of deities and ‘heroes’ (Native American Mythology, Encyclopedia of Myths:2008)

Most religions tell us how earth was first shaped and formed, as does the Native Americans belief in Coyote the ‘Creator‘. Within Native American tribes Coyote is either human , animal or simply a force however all believe he is the creator of man and earth as well as fire.

Creation myths are highly apparent in the Native American mythology-they tell of how the world was brought together and took it's form.

One myth tells the story of Coyote creating the first human by kicking a ball into mud, which then became a man.

Other tribes such as Navajo believe Coyote created man in honour of saving other animals from a monsters stomach

Majority of religions tell us how earth was created along with mankind. The Hindu religion believe their creator to be Ganesha, Muslims speak of their creator as the name of ‘Allah’ Sikhs call to their creator by the name of ‘Waheguru’. Every religion believes their God to be the creator of man kind and the universe, however each one is called by a individual name and stories of how they created us and the world differ.


Responsible for many things, including the Milky Way (see BLACK-GOD) and the diversity of mankind (see HUMAN-MAKER), there are more stories about him than stars in the sky. He ought to have his own website. (Saunders C, Peter A:1999-2008)

A creator is often analysed upon outside theology but daily quest upon, as to how was man first formed and where did it all begin? Darwin proves to us all that man will go to great lengths to seek where he has come from. The Big Bang tells us of how earth was first formed and rational arguments are put across in order to achieve an understanding of our universe and ultimate creator.

In Chelan myths, Coyote belongs to the animal people but he is at the same time "a power just like the Creator, the head of all the creatures" 5. Yet his being 'just like the Creator' does not really mean being 'the Creator': it is not seldom that Coyote-Just-Like-Creator is subject to the Creator, Great Chief Above, who can punish him, send him away, take powers away from him, etc (Kazakova, T. 2004)

Coyote is the Trickster which can be punished for doing either good or bad. He usually sets about to disrupt and cause havoc. Many of Coyote’s stories establish him doing a mis deed or performing some reckless behaviour.

The trickster, who is almost always male, represents uncertainty. He loves to upset things and spread confusion.

Sometimes the trickster's acts are comic pranks, but they often have a cruel side as well. They might involve sexual trickery, as when the trickster disguises himself as a woman so that he can marry a man or marries his own daughters while in disguise. A trickster can also be a devilish figure who eats babies or leads other creatures to harm themselves. His behaviour often stems from impatience or from uncontrollable appetites. (Native American Mythology, Encyclopedia of Myths:2008)

Coyote--wanderer, glutton, lecher, thief, cheat, outlaw, clown, pragmatist, survivor. In the desert Southwest US, where I grew up, coyote the trickster still plays an important pragmatic and ceremonial role in the lives of Native American people. (David W. Fanning: 2006)

The Great Spirit is Coyote’s ultimate creator. The Great Spirit is used in a healing ceremonies which the Natives use to perform a ceremony which is to cure any illness.

Creators, Gods, and Spirits. Many Native American mythologies have a high deity—sometimes referred to as the Great Spirit—who is responsible for bringing the universe or the world into existence. Often, however, the Great Spirit merely begins the process of creation and then disappears or removes itself to heaven, leaving other gods to complete the detailed work of creation and to oversee the day-to-day running of the world.
In the Pacific Northwest tradition, Coyote is mostly mentioned as a messenger, or minor power, "Coyote was sent to the camp of the chief of the Cold Wind tribe to deliver a challenge; Coyote travelled around to tell all the people in both tribes about the contest." Coyote "was cruelly treated, and his work was never done." 7. (Native American Mythology, Encyclopedia:2008)

The Great Spirit therefore represents the good, healing mankind, an ultimate force which can help protect and cure whereas and the Coyote is evil, much in the same way as seeing the other force as the Devil, Satan, temptation, a sin.

Pairs and Opposites. A number of Native American mythologies feature paired or opposing characters or qualities. Twins or sets of brothers appear in many myths and legends. For example, in Iroquois mythology, Earth Woman gives birth to the twin brothers Good Twin and Evil Twin. Good Twin creates light, forests and food plants, while Evil Twin creates impassable mountains, mosquitoes, and a toad that drinks all the water. After a long struggle, Good Twin finally kills Evil Twin. However, Evil Twin's soul and his creations survive to make life difficult for the people that Good Twin brings into being.

Many stories told within religions perceive the Devil at attempting to gain control of God and humanity by employing some temptation for man to give into, therefore one ‘gives in to the Devil.’

Stories within the Bible shows how the beginning of time came about through ‘Adam and Eve’ and also shows us how ‘Good’ and ‘Evil’ came to be our balance of life. Eve’s giving into temptation allows the Devil to control life.

In all religions there is a Creator known to everyone under an individual name. They are available in many forms. Whoever we may call are creators they provide us with the unique balance in life of both good and bad.

My religion being Sikh does not state the form of God, however it is does tell that there is ‘Only one God‘- Whatever he may be.

"God is everyone, everything. He is the ultimate creator which comes in all forms. He is both human and animal. Present and invisible. He is the driving force which creates a balance of both pure and evil."

References

1. Hifler, J.S (1992) A Cherokee Feast of Days. Council Oak Books

2. Kazakova, T (2004) Coyote [Online] available from: http://www.pantheon.org/articles/c/coyote.html [accessed 20.3.2009]

3. Stefko, J (2007) Coyote, Pagan Symbol: Trickster [online] available from: http://paganismwicca.suite101.com/article.cfm/coyote_pagan_symbol_trickster
[accessed: 19.03.2009]

4. Saunders, C: Peter, A (2006) Gods from Native American Mythology,
COYOTE [online] available from: http://www.godchecker.com/pantheon/native_american-mythology.php?deity=COYOTE

5. Native American Mythology (2008) Native American Mythology,Encyclopedia of Myths [online] available from: http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Mi-Ni/Native-American-Mythology.html